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Whatever gave you the idea that I can sing?
I heard a rumour that there's been a leak of radioactivity.
We do not usually leave out that in this pattern. 34
Direct and indirect speech
263 Summary
Introduction to indirect speech • 264
We use direct speech when we repeat someone's words and indirect speech when
we use our own words to report what someone says.
Direct speech: 'I like football,' Emma said.
Indirect speech: Emma said she likes football.
Verbs of reporting • 265


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Verbs of reporting • 265
We use verbs of reporting such as say, tell, ask, answer.
Tell, say and ask • 266
Tell takes an indirect object.
Emma told me she likes football.
Changes in indirect speech • 267
We have to make changes to the original words when there are changes in the
situation.
Nick: I won't be at the club next week.
(spoken to you at a cafe a week ago)
You: Nick said he won't be here this week.
(speaking to Polly at the club now)


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(speaking to Polly at the club now)
Here there are changes of person (I he), place (at the club here) and time
(next week this week).
Tenses in indirect speech • 268
We sometimes change the tense of the verb from present to past, especially when
the statement may be untrue or is out of date.
Emma said she liked football, but she never watches it.
Leon said he was tired, so he had a rest.
Reporting questions • 269
In an indirect question we use a question word or if/whether.


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I'll ask the assistant how much it costs.
Vicky wants to know if Emma likes football.
Reporting orders, requests, offers etc • 270
We use a pattern with the to-infinitive to report orders and requests.
' Could you fill in the form, please?' They told/asked us to fill in the form.
We can also report offers, suggestions etc.
'I can lend you some money.' Sue offered to lend me some money. PAGE 347 264 Introduction to indirect speech
264 Introduction to indirect speech
1 Direct speech


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1 Direct speech
We use direct speech when we report someone's words by repeating them.
'I'll go and heat some milk,' said Agnes. (from a story)
Gould was the first to admit "We were simply beaten by a better side.'
(from a newspaper report)
'Made me laugh more than any comedy I have seen in the West End this year' -
Evening Standard (from an advertisement)
For an example text and for details about punctuation, • 56(4).
2 Indirect speech


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2 Indirect speech
a Instead of repeating the exact words, we can give the meaning in our own words
and from our own point of view.
Agnes said she would go and heat some milk.
Gould admitted that his team were beaten by a better side.
Here the indirect speech (or 'reported speech') is a noun clause, the object of said
and admitted. We sometimes use that, but in informal English we can leave it out,
especially after say or tell.
Tom says (that) his feet hurt.


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Tom says (that) his feet hurt.
You told me (that) you enjoyed the visit.
We can sometimes use a non-finite clause.
Gould admitted having lost to a better side. • 270(2d)
They declared the result to be invalid. • 122(2c)
NOTE
a We use a comma after said, admitted etc and before direct speech, but not before
indirect speech.
Fiona said, 'It's getting late.'
Fiona said it was getting late.
b Sometimes the main clause is at the end, as a kind of afterthought. There is a comma


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after the indirect speech.
His team were beaten by a better side, Gould admitted.
There will be no trains on Christmas Day, British Rail announced yesterday.
We cannot use that when the indirect speech comes first.
c For according to, • 228(1).
b We can report thoughts as well as speech.
Louise thought Wayne was a complete fool.
We all wondered what was going on.
c We can mix direct and indirect speech. This is from a newspaper report about a
man staying at home to look after his children.


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man staying at home to look after his children.
But Brian believes watching the kids grow up and learn new things is the biggest
joy a dad can experience. 'Some people think it's a woman's job, but I don't think
that's relevant any more.' 34 DIRECT AND INDIRECT SPEECH PAGE 348
In indirect speech we do not need to use a verb of reporting in every sentence. This
is from a report about a court case. (The names have been changed.)


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Prosecutor David Andrews said Wilson had stolen a gold wedding ring and credit
card and had used the card to attempt to withdraw money from a bank.
In the second offence Wilson had burgled premises and taken a briefcase
containing takings from a shop.
Police had later recovered the bank notes from his home.
In the second and third paragraphs we could use a verb of reporting.
The prosecutor also said that in the second offence...
Mr Andrews added that police had...


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Mr Andrews added that police had...
But it is not necessary to do this because it is clear that the article is reporting what
the prosecutor said.
265 Verbs of reporting
1 We use verbs of reporting to report statements, thoughts, questions, requests,
apologies and so on.
Polly says we'll enjoy the show.
You mentioned that you were going on holiday.
'What's the reason for that?' she wondered.
You might ask the waiter to bring another bottle.
I've apologized for losing the data.


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I've apologized for losing the data.
Some verbs express how a sentence is spoken.
'Oh, not again,' he groaned.
2 These are verbs of reporting.
accept confess guarantee pray snap
add confirm hear predict state
admit consider imagine promise suggest
advise continue inform propose suppose
agree cry inquire read swear
answer decide insist reassure tell
apologize declare instruct recommend thank
argue demand invite record think
ask deny know refuse threaten
assure doubt learn remark understand


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assure doubt learn remark understand
beg enquire mention remind urge
believe expect murmur repeat want to know
blame explain mutter reply warn
call feel notify report whisper
claim forbid object request wonder
command forecast observe say write
comment groan offer scream
complain growl order shout
conclude grumble point out smile
We use talk and speak to mention who was speaking or for how long.
Angela was talking to Neil. The President spoke for an hour.


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But we do not use talk or speak as verbs of reporting.
The President said that he was confident of success.
NOT The President talked/spoke that he was confident of success.
NOTE 3 A few verbs of reporting always have an indirect object.
No one told me you were leaving.
We informed everyone that the time had been changed.
These verbs are tell, inform, remind, notify, persuade, convince and reassure.
Some verbs of reporting take an indirect object and a to-infinitive.


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The police ordered the men to lie down. • 270
4 With direct speech we can sometimes invert the verb of reporting and the subject.
This happens mainly in literary English, for example in stories and novels.
'Nice to see you,' Phil said/said Phil.
'I'm afraid not,' the woman replied/replied the woman.
We can do this with most verbs of reporting, but not with tell.
We cannot put a personal pronoun (e.g. he, she) after the verb.
'Nice to see you,' he said.


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'Nice to see you,' he said.
5 We can also use nouns such as announcement, opinion, remark, reply, statement.
For noun + that-clause, • 262(7).
The statement that no action would be taken was met with disbelief.
We can also use sure and certain.
Polly is sure we'll enjoy the show.
266 Tell, say and ask
1 We normally use an indirect object after tell but not after say.
Celia told me she's fed up. NOT Celia told she's fed up.
Andy told me all the latest news.


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Andy told me all the latest news.
Celia said she's fed up. NOT Celia said me she's fed up
Dave never says anything. He's very quiet.
We can use ask with or without an indirect object.
I asked (Celia) if there was anything wrong.
For tell and ask in indirect orders and requests, • 270(1).
We told/asked Celia to hurry up.
NOTE
a We can use a that-clause or a wh-clause.
Celia told me (that) she's fed up/said (that) she's fed up.
Celia told me what's wrong.


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Celia told me what's wrong.
Say + wh-clause is more common in negatives or questions, where the information
is not actually reported.
Celia didn't tell me/didn't say what was wrong.
Did your brother tell you/say where he was going?
b Compare ask and say in direct and indirect speech.
'What time is it?' he asked/said. He asked what time it was.
'The time is...,' he said. He said what time it was.
c We can use tell + indirect object + about.
Debbie told us about her new boy-friend.


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Debbie told us about her new boy-friend.
With talk about there is no indirect object.
Debbie talked about her new boy-friend.
We use say with about only if the information is not actually reported.
What did she tell you/say about her new boy-friend?
No one has told us anything/said anything about the arrangements.
PAGE 349 266 Tell, say and ask 2 But we can use tell without an indirect object in these expressions.
Paul told (us) a very funny story/joke. You must tell (me) the truth.


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You mustn't tell (people) lies. The pupils have learnt to tell the time.
3 After say we can use a phrase with to, especially if the information is not reported.
The mayor will say a few words to the guests. What did the boss say to you?
But when the information is reported we use these patterns.
The boss said he's leaving/told me he's leaving.
This is much more usual than The boss said to me he's leaving.
NOTE
With direct speech we can use say to.


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NOTE
With direct speech we can use say to.
'I'm OK,' Celia told me. 'I'm OK,' Celia said (to me). 'Are you OK?' Celia asked (me).
267 Changes in indirect speech
1 People, place and time
Imagine a situation where Martin and Kate need an electrician to do some repair
work for them. Kate rings the electrician.
Electrician: I'll be at your house at nine tomorrow morning.
A moment later Kate reports this to Martin.
Kate: The electrician says he'll be here at nine tomorrow morning.


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Now the speaker is different, so I becomes the electrician or he. The speaker is in a
different place, so at your house becomes here for Kate.
But next day the electrician does not come. Kate rings him later in the day.
Kate: You said you would be here at nine this morning.
Now the time is a day later, so tomorrow morning becomes this morning. And the
promise is now out of date, so will becomes would. (For the tense change, • 268.)


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Whenever we report something, we have to take account of changes in the
situation - a different speaker, a different place or a different time.
2 Adverbials of time
Here are some typical changes from direct to indirect speech. But remember that
the changes are not automatic; they depend on the situation.
Direct speech Indirect speech
now then/at that time/immediately
today yesterday/that day/on Tuesday etc
yesterday the day before/the previous day/on Monday etc


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tomorrow the next day/the following day/on Wednesday etc
this week last week/ that week
last year the year before/the previous year/in 1990etc
next month the month after/the following month/in August etc
an hour ago an hour before/an hour earlier/at two o 'clock etc
NOTE
When we are talking about something other than time, this/that usually changes to the or it.
'This steak is nice.' Dan said the steak was nice.
'I like that.' Paula saw a coat. She said she liked it.


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34 DIRECT AND INDIRECT SPEECH PAGE 350 268 Tenses in indirect speech
1 Verbs of reporting
a A verb of reporting can be in a present tense.
The forecast says it's going to rain.
Karen tells me she knows the way.
I've heard they might close this place down.
Here the present tense suggests that the words were spoken only a short time ago
and are still relevant. For written words, • 64(2f).
After a present-tense verb of reporting, we do not change the tense in indirect
speech.


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speech.
'I'm hungry.' Robert says he's hungry.
NOTE
After a present-tense verb of reporting, the past tense means past time.
The singer says he took drugs when he was younger.
b When we see the statement as in the past, the verb of reporting is in a past tense.
Robert said he's hungry.
Karen told me yesterday that she knows the way.
We can use the past even if the words were spoken only a moment ago.
2 The meaning of the tense change


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2 The meaning of the tense change
When the verb of reporting is in a past tense, we sometimes change the tense in
indirect speech from present to past.
a If the statement is still relevant, we do not usually change the tense, although we
can do.
7 know the way.' Karen told me she knows/knew the way, so there's no need to
take a map.
'I'm hungry.' Robert said he's/he was hungry, so we're going to eat.
b We can change the tense when it is uncertain if the statement is true. Compare


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these examples.
We'd better not go out. The forecast said it's going to rain.
I hope it doesn't rain. ~ It might. The forecast said it was going to rain.
The present tense (is) makes the rain sound more likely. We are more interested in
the fact of the rain than in the forecast. The past tense (was) makes the rain less
real. We are expressing the idea that it is a forecast, not a fact.
c We use the past tense when we are reporting objectively, when we do not want to


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suggest that the information is necessarily true.
'I'm not interested in money.' Tom told me he wasn't interested in money.
'Our policies will be good for The party said its policies would be good for the
the country.' country.
d When a statement is untrue or out of date, then we change the tense.
Karen told me she knew the way, but she took the wrong turning.
The forecast said it was going to rain, and it did.
PAGE 351 268 Tenses in indirect speech 34 DIRECT AND INDIRECT SPEECH PAGE 352


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You said you were hungry, but you didn't eat anything.
Oh, they live in Bristol, do they? I thought they lived in Bath.
You told me years ago that you wanted to be a film. star.
3 The form of the tense change
a The tense change in indirect speech is a change from present to past.
'I feel ill.' Kay said she felt ill.
'You're crazy.' You said I was crazy.
'We're losing.' We thought we were losing.
'I've got time.' Simon said he had time.
'We haven't finished.' They said they hadn't finished.


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'She's been crying.' Who said Ann had been crying?
If the verb phrase is more than one word, then the first word changes,
e.g. are losing were losing, has been crying had been crying.
b If the verb is past, then it changes to the past perfect.
'I bought the shirt.' He told us he had bought the shirt.
'We were having lunch.' They said they had been having lunch.
If the verb is past perfect, it does not change.
'Paul had been there before.' Jack said Paul had been there before.
NOTE


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NOTE
a We do not need to change a past-tense verb when it refers to a complete action.
Nicola told me she passed/she'd passed her driving test.
But when it refers to a state or a habit, there can be a difference in meaning.
William said he felt ill. And he did look awful.
William said he'd felt ill/he'd been feeling ill. But he'd got over it.
b The past perfect in indirect speech can relate to three different forms.
'I've seen the film.' She said she'd seen the film.


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'I saw the film last week.' She said she'd seen the film the week before.
'I'd seen the film before, but I She said she'd seen the film before.
enjoyed watching it again.'
c We do not change a past-tense verb when it means something unreal. • 241(3)
'I wish I had a dog.' My sister says she wishes she had a dog.
'It's time we went.' The girls thought it was time they went.
'If I knew, I'd tell you.' Amy said that if she knew, she'd tell us.
c There are changes to some modal verbs.


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c There are changes to some modal verbs.
'You'll get wet.' I told them they would get wet.
'I can drive.' I said I could drive.
'It may snow.' They thought it might snow.
The changes are will would, can could and may might. But these do not
change: would, could, should, might, ought to, had better, used to.
'A walk would be nice.' We thought a walk would be nice.
NOTE
a Sometimes we use different patterns to report sentences with modal verbs. • 270


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' Would you like to come for tea?' They invited me for tea.
b Shall for the future changes to would. In rather formal English it can change to should in
the first person.
'I shall complain.' He said he would complain.
I said I would/I should complain.
Shall with other meanings changes to should.
'What shall I do?' She asked what she should do. d Must expressing necessity can change to had to.
'I must go now.' Sarah said she must go/had to go.


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But when must expresses certainty, it does not usually change.
I thought there must be some mistake.
Compare mustn't and needn't.
'You mustn't lose the key.' I told Kevin he mustn't lose/he wasn't to lose the key.
'You needn't wait.' I told Kevin he needn't wait/he didn't have to wait.
NOTE
When must refers to the future, it can change to would have to.
'I must go soon.' Sarah said she would have to go soon.
269 Reporting questions


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269 Reporting questions
1 We can report a question by using verbs like ask, inquire/enquire, wonder or
to know.
a Look at these wh-questions.
Where did you have lunch? I asked Elaine where she had lunch.
~ In the canteen.
What time does the flight get in? I'll inquire what time the flight gets in.
~ Half past twelve.
Who have you invited? Peter is wondering who we've invited.
~ Oh, lots of people.
When is the lesson? Someone wants to know when the lesson is.
~ I don't know.


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~ I don't know.
For the pattern We were wondering where to go for lunch, • 125.
b To report yes/no questions we use if or whether.
Is there a waiting-room? Dan was asking if/whether there's a waiting-
~ Yes, over here. room.
Have you bought your ticket? Mandy wants to know if Steve has bought his
~ No, not yet. ticket.
We can use or not to emphasize the need for a yes/no reply.
They want to know if/whether it's safe or not.
They want to know whether or not it's safe.


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They want to know whether or not it's safe.
But NOT ... if or not it's safe
In a reported question the word order is usually like a statement.
I asked Elaine when she had lunch.
NOT I asked Elaine when she did have lunch.
We do not use a question mark.
NOTE
a When the question word is the subject, the word order does not change.
Who left this bag here? Sophie wanted to know who left the bag there.
b In informal English we can sometimes invert the subject and be.


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I asked where was the best place to have lunch.
And we use inversion in the indirect speech when the main clause goes at the end, as a
kind of afterthought.
Where did Elaine have lunch, I was wondering.
PAGE 353 269 Reporting questions 34 DIRECT AND INDIRECT SPEECH PAGE 354
We can use a wh-clause or if/whether after say, tell etc when we are talking about
the answer to a question.
Did Helen say when she would be calling?
I wish you'd tell me whether you agree.


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I wish you'd tell me whether you agree.
I've found out what time the flight gets in.
We can use an indirect question to ask for information after an expression such as
Could you tell me...? •33
Could you tell me where the post office is, please?
In an indirect question, the tense can change from present to past in the same way
as in a statement. • 268
What do you want? The man asked what we wanted.
Who are you waiting for? Alex wondered who I was waiting for.


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Will there be a band? They asked if there would be a band.
270 Reporting orders, requests, offers etc
1 Orders and requests
a We can use tell/ask + object + to-infinitive.
'Please wait outside.' The teacher told us to wait outside.
'I want you to relax.' She's always telling me to relax.
'Could you help us?' We asked James to help us.
'Would you mind not smoking?' Our hostess asked Alan not to smoke.
We can also use these verbs: order, command, instruct; forbid; request, beg, urge.
NOTE


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NOTE
a For more details about this pattern, • 122(2a).
b The main clause can be passive.
We were told to wait outside.
c We can use this pattern with say in informal English.
The teacher said to wait outside.
A We can use ask without an indirect object. Compare these patterns.
'May I sit down?' Peter asked to sit down.
'Please sit down.' Peter asked me to sit down.
e We can use a pattern with ask for and a passive to-infinitive.


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The villagers are asking for a pedestrian crossing to be installed.
f We use ask for + noun phrase when someone asks to have something.
I asked (the porter) for my key.
g To report a request for permission we use ask if/whether.
'Do you mind if I smoke?' Alan asked if he could smoke.
b We can also report the sentences like this.
My psychiatrist is always telling me she wants me to relax.
Our hostess asked Alan if he would mind not smoking.


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c To express an order, we can also use must, have to or be to.
The teacher said we had to wait/we were to wait outside.
My psychiatrist is always telling me I must relax/I'm to relax.
NOTE
After most verbs of reporting, we can use a clause with should. • 242(2)
The police ordered that the gates should be closed. 2 Offers, warnings, apologies etc
We can report these kinds of sentences with say or ask, or we can use offer, warn,
apologize etc.


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apologize etc.
'I can lend you some money.' Sue offered to lend me some money.
Sue said she could lend me some money.
Here are some patterns we can use.
a A single clause
'I'm sorry.'
'Thank you very much.'
'I really must have a break.'
'Be careful. The path is slippery.'
b Verb + to-infinitive
'I'm not going to walk all that way.'
Also: agree, offer, promise, threaten
c Verb + object + to-infinitive
'You really ought to get some help.'
"Would you like to stay at our
house?'


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"Would you like to stay at our
house?'
Also: recommend, remind, warn
The man apologized.
I thanked the driver.
Jeff insisted on a break.
He warned us about the path.
Gary refused to walk.
Mark advised us to get some help.
Your friends have invited me to stay at
their house.
d Verb + gerund
'Why don't we share the cost?'
'I'm afraid I've lost the photo.'
Someone suggested sharing the cost.
Lorna admitted losing the photo.
e Verb + preposition + gerund


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e Verb + preposition + gerund
'I'm sorry I messed up the Roland apologized for messing up the
arrangements.' arrangements.
Also: complain about, confess to, insist on, object to
f Verb + object + preposition + gerund
'It was your fault. You didn't tell
us.'
They blamed James for not telling
them.
g Verb + that-clause
Jeff insisted (that) we had a break.
Lorna admitted (that) she had lost the photo.
Also: agree, complain, confess, object, promise, suggest, threaten, warn
NOTE


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NOTE
After agree, insist, promise and suggest we can use a clause with should. • 242(2)
Jeff insisted that we should have a break.
h Verb + object + that-clause
He warned us that the path was slippery.
Also: advise, promise, remind
PAGE 355 270 Reporting orders, requests, offers etc 35Relative clauses
271 Summary
Introduction to relative clauses • 272
An adjective or prepositional phrase can modify a noun. A relative clause
does the same.
Adjective: the red team
Phrase: the team in red


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Adjective: the red team
Phrase: the team in red
Relative clause: the team wearing red
the team who were wearing red
Some relative clauses do not have commas. They are identifying clauses
and classifying clauses.
Identifying: What's the name of the player who was injured?
(The clause tells us which player is meant.)
Classifying: A player who is injured has to leave the field.
(The clause tells us what kind of player is meant.)
Some relative clauses have commas. They are adding clauses and


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connective clauses.
Adding: Jones, who was injured, left the field.
(The clause adds information about Jones.)
Connective: The ball went to Jones, who scored easily.
(The clause tells us what happened next.)
Relative pronouns in clauses without commas • 273
We use the relative pronouns who or that for people and which or that for things.
These pronouns can be the subject or object of the clause.
Subject: We got on the first bus that came.
Object: We got on the first bus that we saw.


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Object: We got on the first bus that we saw.
Object of a preposition: Next came the bus that we were waiting for.
We can leave out the pronoun when it is not the subject.
We got on the first bus we saw.
PAGE 356 PAGE 357 272 Introduction to relative clauses
Relative clauses with commas • 274
In an adding clause or connective clause we cannot use that, and we cannot leave
out the pronoun.
The first bus, which came after five minutes, was a seven.
Whose • 275


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Whose • 275
The player whose goal won the game was Jones.
Participle relative clauses • 276
The bus coming now is ours.
The player injured in the leg had to leave the field.
Infinitive relative clauses • 277
United were the first team to score.
Which relating to a clause • 278
United won easily, which pleased their fans.
Relative adverbs • 279
That's the stop where we get our bus.
The relative pronoun what • 280
United's fans got what they wanted.
Whoever, whatever and whichever •281


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Whoever, whatever and whichever •281
Whoever used the pans should wash them up.
272 Introduction to relative clauses
1 SEVERN BODY CLUE
A body recovered from the River Severn at Tewkesbury at the weekend is
thought to be a man who disappeared from the Midlands in January, police
said yesterday.
(from The Guardian)
There are two relative clauses. Each clause relates to a noun (body, man). The
second clause begins with a relative pronoun (who). The pronoun joins the relative


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clause to the main clause.
The body is that of a man. He disappeared in January.
The body is that of a man who disappeared in January. 35 RELATIVE CLAUSES PAGE 358
2 There are different ways of modifying a noun.
Adjective: a dead body
Noun: a Midlands man
Phrase: a body in the river
a man from the Midlands
Participle relative clause: a body recovered from the river
a man speaking in a Midlands accent
Finite relative clause: a body which was recovered from the river


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a man who disappeared from the Midlands
We usually choose the pattern that expresses the information in the shortest way.
For example, a man from the Midlands is more usual than a man who comes from
the Midlands.
NOTE
A relative clause can come after a pronoun such as everyone, something.
He is thought to be someone who disappeared from the Midlands in January.
But a clause after a personal pronoun is rather formal and old-fashioned.
He who would climb the ladder must begin at the bottom.


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3 The following kinds of relative clause do not have commas around them, and in
speech we do not pause before them.
a Identifying clauses
A clause can identify the noun, say which one we mean.
The architect who designed these flats doesn't live here, of course.
I can't find the book that I was reading.
The clause that I was reading identifies which book we are talking about.
NOTE
When there is an identifying clause, the determiner before the noun is usually the, not my,
your, etc.


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your, etc.
I like the course that I'm doing now.
NOT I like my course that I'm doing now.
My identifies which course, so we do not need it with an identifying clause.
b Classifying clauses
A clause can classify the noun, say what kind we mean.
I hate people who laugh at their own jokes.
We're looking for a pub that serves food.
The clause that serves food expresses the kind of pub we mean.
c Clauses used for emphasis


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c Clauses used for emphasis
We can use a relative clause in a pattern with it in order to emphasize a phrase.
It was Jones who was injured, not Brown. • 51(3)
4 The following kinds of relative clause are separated from the noun, usually by a
comma. In speech there is a short pause before the clause.
a Adding clauses
A clause can add extra information about a noun. • 274
Aristotle was taught by Plato, who founded the Academy at Athens.


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The clause who founded the Academy at Athens adds extra information about
Plato. We can leave out the adding clause and the sentence still makes sense. Identifying:
Adding:
272 Introduction to relative clausesPAGE 359
b Connective clauses
A clause can tell us what happened next.
I shouted to the man, who ran off.
We use a connective clause to link two actions. In spoken English we often use two
main clauses.
I shouted to the man, and he ran off.


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I shouted to the man, and he ran off.
5 Whether we use commas or not (or whether we pause) makes a difference to the
meaning.
a Compare the identifying clause and the adding clause.
Identifying: Two cars had to swerve to avoid each other. One car left the road
and hit a tree, and the other one ended up on its roof. The driver of
the car which hit a tree was killed.
Adding: A car had to swerve to avoid a horse and left the road. The driver of
the car, which hit a tree, was killed.


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the car, which hit a tree, was killed.
The identifying clause tells us which of the two cars is meant. The adding clause
adds extra information about the car. It does not identify the car because in this
context there is only one.
b In speech we make a difference between the two kinds of clause.
Before the adding clause there is a pause. There is a fall in intonation on both the
noun phrase and the adding clause.
c Compare the classifying clause and the adding clause.


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Classifying: Cars which cause pollution should be banned.
(Some cars should be banned because they cause pollution.)
Adding: Cars, which cause pollution, should be banned.
(All cars should be banned because they cause pollution.)
The classifying clause tells us what kind of cars are meant. The adding clause adds
information about cars in general.
6 A relative clause usually comes directly after the noun it relates to, but it can come


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later in the sentence. These two examples are from real conversations.
I can't think of any good films at the moment that I'd like to see.
The train was just pulling out of the station that we were supposed to
connect with.
We can do this when the clause has important information that we need to put at
the end of the sentence. But separating the noun and its relative clause can be
awkward, and in writing we often avoid it.
NOTE


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awkward, and in writing we often avoid it.
NOTE
We can use fronting or inversion to get the noun + clause at the end.
At the moment I can't think of any good films that I'd like to see.
Just pulling out of the station was the train that we were supposed to connect with.
the driver of the car which hit a tree
treedriver of the car, which hit athe 35 RELATIVE CLAUSES PAGE:
When we use a relative pronoun, we do not use a personal pronoun as well.


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a man who disappeared in January NOT a man who he disappeared in January
a body that they found in the river NOT a body that they found it in the river
NOTE
But in informal spoken English we sometimes use an extra personal pronoun when the
relative clause has a sub clause.
We were talking about the factory that the police believe someone set fire to (it) deliberately.
273 Relative pronouns in clauses without commas
Here we look at clauses in which we use who, whom, which or that, and clauses


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without a pronoun. These are identifying and classifying clauses.
1 Who or which?
We use who for a person and which for a thing or an idea.
Who was the girl who arrived late? It was a dream which came true.
The difference between who and which is like that between he/she and it. • 184(3b)
We can use that with any noun.
Who was the girl who/that you came with?
It was a dream which/that came true.
With people, who is more usual than that. With other things, both which and that


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are possible, but which is a little more formal.
NOTE
The forms are the same whether the noun is singular or plural
I don't know the girl/girls who arrived late.
2 Relative pronoun as subject
The pronoun can be the subject of the relative clause.
The young man who/that lives on the corner rides a motor-bike.
(He lives on the corner.)
I've got a computer program which/that does the job for me.
(It does the job for me.)
NOTE


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(It does the job for me.)
NOTE
In general, who is more usual than that as subject of the clause. But we often use that when
we do not mean a specific person.
Anyone who/that knows the facts must disagree with the official view.
3 Relative pronoun as object
a The pronoun can be the object of a relative clause.
It's the same actor who/that we saw at the theatre.
(We saw him at the theatre.)
You can get back the tax which/that you've paid.
(You've paid it.)


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(You've paid it.)
We often leave out the relative pronoun. • (5)
It's the same actor we saw at the theatre. NOTE
Who and that are both possible as the object. But we normally use that rather than which for
something not specific.
We can supply you with everything (that) you need.
b When who is the object, we can use whom instead.
It's the same actor who/whom we saw at the theatre.
A man who/whom Neil knew was standing at the bar.


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A man who/whom Neil knew was standing at the bar.
Whom is formal and rather old-fashioned. In everyday speech we use who, or we
leave out the pronoun. • (5)
4 Prepositions in relative clauses
a The relative pronoun can be the object of a preposition.
I'll introduce you to the man who/that I share aflat with.
(I share a flat with him.)
Is this the magazine which/that you were talking about just now?
(You were talking about it just now.)


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(You were talking about it just now.)
In informal English the preposition comes in the same place as in a main clause
(share aflat with, talking about).
We often leave out the relative pronoun. • (5)
I'll introduce you to the man I share aflat with.
NOTE
In this pattern whom is possible but less usual.
I'll introduce you to the man who/whom I share a flat with.
b In more formal English we can put the preposition before whom or which.


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The person with whom Mr Fletcher shared the flat had not paid his rent.
The topic in which Michael is most interested is scientific theory.
We cannot leave out whom or which here, and we cannot use who or that.
5 Leaving out relative pronouns
We can leave out the pronoun when it is not the subject of the relative clause.
Clauses without pronouns are very common in informal English.
The woman Gary met knows your sister.
The parcel I posted on Monday still hasn't got there.


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That man Angela was sitting next to never said a word.
He certainly could not have committed the crime he was accused of.
But we cannot leave out the pronoun when it is the subject.
That man who was sitting next to Angela never said a word.
Sometimes we can use a participle without a relative pronoun or an auxiliary.
• 276
That man sitting next to Angela never said a word.
NOTE
We usually leave out the object after a pronoun, a quantifier or a superlative.


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I don't think there's anyone I can really trust.
All you ever get in this newspaper is sex.
This is the worst summer 1 can remember.
We can also use that here.
PAGE 361 273 Relative clauses without commas 35 RELATIVE CLAUSES PAGE 362
6 Overview: who, whom, which and that
People Things
Subject the man who was talking
the man that was talking
Object of the man who we met
verb the man that we met
the man we met
the man whom we met
Object of the man who we talked to


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Object of the man who we talked to
preposition the man that we talked to
the man we talked to
the man whom we talked to
the man to whom we talked
the music which was playing
the music that was playing
the music which we heard
the music that we heard
the music we heard
the music which we listened to
the music that we listened to
the music we listened to
the music to which we listened
274 Relative clauses with commas


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274 Relative clauses with commas
1 An adding clause (or 'non-identifying clause') adds extra information. This news
item contains a sentence with an adding clause.
A bank robber escaped from prison last week, after climbing aboard a helicopter
that had been hijacked by an armed accomplice, in Brittany. Claude Riviere, who
was sentenced to 15 years imprisonment in 1987, leapt into the helicopter while
on an exercise period.
(from Early Times)


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on an exercise period.
(from Early Times)
The clause adds extra information that the reader may not know. But if we leave
out the adding clause, the sentence still makes sense.
There are often adding clauses in informative texts. They are rather formal and
typical of a written style.
For the difference between identifying and adding clauses, • 272(5).
2 We separate the adding clause from the main clause, usually with commas.
We can also use dashes or brackets.


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We can also use dashes or brackets.
Einstein, who failed his university entrance exam, discovered relativity.
The new manager is nicer than the old one - whom the staff disliked.
The cat (whose name was Molly) was sitting on the window-sill.
The drugs, which were hidden in bars of chocolate, have a street value
of £20 million.
In an adding clause we use who, whom, whose or which but not that. And we
cannot leave out the pronoun from an adding clause.


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3 A preposition can go before the pronoun, or it can stay in the same place as in a
main clause.
Tim's hobby is photography, on which he spends most of his spare cash.
Tim's hobby is photography, which he spends most of his spare cash on.
It is more informal to leave the preposition at the end. 4 We can use a quantifier + of whom/of which to express a whole or part quantity.
The police received a number of bomb warnings, all of which turned out to be


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false alarms. (All of them turned out to be false alarms.)
In the chair lift were two people, one of whom was slightly injured.
There are dozens of TV channels, some of which operate 24 hours a day.
5 We use the same patterns in connective clauses to say what happened next.
He presented the flowers to Susan, who burst into tears.
Mike dropped a box of eggs, all of which broke.
275 Whose
1 Whose has a possessive meaning.
The people whose cars were damaged complained to the police.


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(Their cars were damaged.)
Tania is someone whose courage I admire.
The friend whose dog I'm looking after is in Australia.
Madame Tussaud, whose waxworks are a popular attraction, died in 1850.
But NOT someone whose the courage I admire
2 Whose usually relates to a person, but it can relate to other things, especially a
country or organization.
I wouldn't fly with an airline whose safety record is so poor.
(Its safety record is so poor.)


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(Its safety record is so poor.)
The others were playing a game whose rules I couldn't understand.
NOTE
Instead of whose relating to a thing, we can use this pattern with of which.
The others were playing a game the rules of which I couldn't understand.
We are introducing a new system, the aim of which is to reduce costs.
3 Whose + noun can be the object of a preposition.
The President, in whose private life the newspapers are so interested, has
nothing to hide.


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nothing to hide.
Phyllis is the woman whose cottage we once stayed at.
276 Participle relative clauses
1 Active participles
a We can use an active participle in a relative clause without a pronoun or an
auxiliary.
Those people taking photos over there come from Sweden.
(= those people who are taking photos)
The official took no notice of the telephone ringing on his desk.
(= the telephone which was ringing on his desk)
To Robin, sunbathing on the beach, all his problems seemed far away.


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The participle can refer to the present (are taking) or the past (was ringing).
For this pattern with there + be, • 50(3).
There was a telephone ringing somewhere.
PAGE 363 276 Participle relative clauses 35 RELATIVE CLAUSES PAGE 364
b An active participle can also refer to a state.
All the equipment belonging to the club is insured.
(= all the equipment which belongs to the club)
Fans wanting to buy tickets started queuing early.
It can also report people's words.


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It can also report people's words.
They've put up a sign warning of the danger.
c We can sometimes use the active participle for a repeated action.
People travelling into London every day are used to the hold-ups.
(= people who travel into London every day)
But the pattern is less usual for a single complete action.
The gang who stole the jewels got away.
NOT The gang stealing the jewels got away.
2 Passive participles
We can use a passive participle in a relative clause without a pronoun or an


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auxiliary.
Applications sent in after 23rd March will not be considered.
(= applications which are sent in)
Stones thrown at the train by vandals smashed two windows.
(= stones which were thrown at the train)
Police are trying to identify a body recovered from the river.
(= a body which has been recovered from the river)
The first British TV commercial, broadcast in 1955, was for toothpaste.
NOTE
We can also use a continuous form of the participle.


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Industrial training is the subject being discussed in Parliament this afternoon.
3 Word order with participles
We can sometimes put a participle before a noun.
a ringing telephone
But we cannot normally put a whole relative clause before the noun. • 137
NOT the on his desk ringing telephone
277 Infinitive relative clauses
Look at this pattern with an adjective and a to-infinitive.
Which was the first country to win the World Cup at rugby?
(= the first country which won the World Cup)


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(= the first country which won the World Cup)
The last person to leave will have to turn out the lights.
(= the last person who leaves)
Maxicorp were the only company to reply to my letter.
William Pitt was the youngest person to become Prime Minister.
We can use a to-infinitive after an ordinal number (first, second etc), after next and
last, after only, and after superlative adjectives (youngest).
NOTE
a We can also use a passive to-infinitive.


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NOTE
a We can also use a passive to-infinitive.
The first British monarch to be filmed was Queen Victoria.
b For I've got some letters to write, • 124(2). 280 The relative pronoun what
278 Which relating to a clause
Which can relate to a whole clause, not just to a noun.
The team has lost all its matches, which doesn't surprise me.
(= The fact that the team has lost all its matches doesn't surprise me.)
Anna and Matthew spent the whole time arguing, which annoyed Laura.


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I get paid a hit more now, which means I can afford to run a car.
In this pattern the relative clause with which is an adding clause. We normally put a
comma before which. We cannot use that or what instead of which in this pattern.
279 Relative adverbs
1 There are relative adverbs where, when and why.
The house where I used to live has been knocked down.
Do you remember the time when we all went to a night club?
The reason why I can't go is that I don't have time.


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We use where after nouns like place, house, street, town, country. We use when after
nouns like time, period, moment, day, summer. We use why after reason.
NOTE
We can use where and when without a noun.
Where I used to live has been knocked down.
Do you remember when we all went to a night club?
2 Instead of a clause with where, we can often use one with a preposition.
The house (that) I used to live in has been knocked down.
We can leave out when or why, or we can use that instead.


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Do you remember the time (that) we all went to a night club?
The reason (that) I can't go is that I don't have time.
3 Clauses with where and when can be adding or connective clauses.
We walked up to the top of the hill, where we got a marvellous view.
Can't we go next week, when I won't be so busy?
We cannot leave out where or when here, and we cannot use that.
280 The relative pronoun what
We can use what in this pattern.
We'd better write a list of what we need to pack.


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We'd better write a list of what we need to pack.
(= the things that we need to pack)
I was going to buy a new coat, but I couldn't find what I wanted.
(= the thing that I wanted)
But vhat cannot relate to a noun.
NOT the coat what I wanted
We can use what in indirect speech. • 269(3)
I told you what we need to pack.
We can also use what in a special pattern to emphasize a phrase. • 51 (4)
What we need to pack is just a few clothes.
PAGE 365 35 RELATIVE CLAUSES PAGE 366


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PAGE 365 35 RELATIVE CLAUSES PAGE 366
281 Whoever, whatever and whichever
Look at these examples.
Whoever designed this building ought to be shot.
(= the person who designed this building - no matter who it is)
I'll spend my money on whatever I like.
(= the thing that I like - no matter what it is)
Whichever date we choose will be inconvenient for some of us.
(= the date that we choose - no matter which it is)
We cannot use who in this pattern.
NOT Who-dcsigned this building ought to be shot.


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NOT Who-dcsigned this building ought to be shot.
But we can use what. • 280
For whoever etc in another pattern, • 254. 36Word-building
282 Summary
Compounds • 283
Some words are formed by combining two different words to make a compound.
bath + room = bathroom
It is usually shorter and neater to say a bathroom than a room with a bath in it.
Prefixes • 284
We can add a prefix to a word. For example, we can add the prefix inter in front of


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the adjective national. A prefix adds something to the meaning.
Is it a flight between different countries?
Is it an international flight?
Here the pattern with the prefix is neater.
Suffixes • 285
We can add a suffix to a word. For example, we can add the suffix ness to the
adjective kind to form the noun kindness.
We won't forget the fact that you've been so kind.
We won't forget your kindness.
The pattern with the abstract noun is neater.
Vowel and consonant changes • 286


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Vowel and consonant changes • 286
Some related words have a different sound, e.g. hot and heat.
Words belonging to more than one class • 287
Some words belong to more than one class. For example, cost is both a verb
and a noun.
The shoes cost £50. the cost of the shoes
Nationality words • 288
We can use most nationality words as adjectives and as nouns.
a Canadian town He's a Canadian.
PAGE 367 36 WORD-BUILDING PAGE 368
283 Compounds
1 Compound nouns


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283 Compounds
1 Compound nouns
A compound noun is two nouns joined together.
handbag teacup weekend armchair water-power
We stress the first noun, e.g. 'handbag.
It is often difficult to tell the difference between a compound noun and two single
nouns. For details about two nouns together, • 147.
NOTE
A few compound nouns are formed from an adjective and noun. Compare these patterns.
Compound noun: a 'darkroom (= a room for developing photos)


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Adjective + noun: a dark 'room (= a room that is dark)
Other such compound nouns are greenhouse, blackboard, shorthand, hotplate.
2 Gerund + noun
We can use a gerund to classify a noun, to say what type it is or what its purpose is.
the dining room (= the room for dining in) a sailing boat running shoes
the booking-office some writing-paper a swimming-pool
We often use a hyphen. We stress the gerund, e.g. the 'dining-room.
NOTE
Compare a gerund and participle.


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NOTE
Compare a gerund and participle.
Gerund: a 'sleeping pill (= a pill for helping you to sleep)
Participle: a sleeping 'child (= a child who is sleeping)
3 Noun + gerund
A gerund can have a noun object in front of it.
Coin-collecting is an interesting hobby. I'm tired of sightseeing.
Taxi-driving was what I always wanted to do.
We stress the noun, e.g. 'coin-collecting. The noun is singular:
NOT coins collecting. Compare a gerund clause.
Collecting coins is an interesting hobby.


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Collecting coins is an interesting hobby.
4 Compounds with participles
We can form compounds with active or passive participles.
a road- widening scheme a hard-boiled egg
For more details, • 137(2).
5 Compounds with numbers
We can use a number + noun to modify another noun.
a three-day visit a six-mile journey a car with four-wheel drive
The noun is singular: NOT a three days visit. But for a three days' visit, • 146(5). We
can also say a visit of three days.


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can also say a visit of three days.
We can also use a number + noun + adjective.
a three-day-old baby a hundred-yard-long queue PAGE 369 284 Prefixes
284 Prefixes
A prefix comes at the beginning of a word. It adds something to the meaning.
1 Here are some common prefixes.
re (= again): rewrite a letter, re-enter a room, remarry
semi (= half): semi-skilled workers, a semi-conscious state
mono (= one): monorail, monolingual, a monotone


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mono (= one): monorail, monolingual, a monotone
multi (= many): a multinational company, a multi-storey car park
super (= big/more): a superstore, a superhuman effort, a supersonic aircraft
sub (= under/less): subnormal intelligence, sub-zero temperatures
mini (= small): a minibus, a miniskirt, a minicomputer
pre (= before): the pre-war years, prehistoric times
post (= after): a post-dated cheque, the post- war period
ex (= previously): his ex- wife, our ex-Director


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ex (= previously): his ex- wife, our ex-Director
inter (= between): inter-city trains, an international phone call
trans (= across): a transatlantic flight, a heart transplant operation
co (= together): co-exist, a co-production, my co-driver
over (= too much): overcrowded, ill from overwork, an overgrown garden,
overweight
under (= too little): undercooked food, an understaffed office, underpaid
out (= more/better): outnumber the opposition, outplayed their opponents,


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outlived both her children
pro (= in favour of): pro-government forces, pro-European policies
anti (= against): anti-nuclear protestors, anti-aircraft guns
mis (= badly/wrongly): misuse, misbehave, misgovern, miscount, a
misunderstanding
2 There are some negative prefixes used to express an opposite.
a un: unhappy, unfair, unofficial, unemployed, unplug a machine,
unpack a suitcase
This is the most common way of expressing an opposite.


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b in: inexact, independent, indirect, inexpert, an injustice
NOTE
We do not use in before l, m, p or r. We use il, im and ir instead.
illegal, illogical; immobile, immoral, impossible, impatient; irrelevant, irresponsible
c dis: dishonest, disunited, disagree, disappear, dislike, disadvantage
d non: non-alcoholic drinks, a non-stop flight, a non-smoker
e de: defrost a fridge, the depopulation of the countryside,
the decentralization of government 36 WORD-BUILDING PAGE 370
285 Suffixes


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285 Suffixes
change in the vowel, e.g. courage
a Verb + ment: payment, movement, government, arrangement,
development
b Verb + ion/tion/ation/ition: correct correction, discuss discussion,
produce production, inform information,
invite invitation, add addition,
repeat repetition
c Verb with d/t sion:
d Verb + ance/ence:
e Adjective in ent ence:
f Adjective + ty/ity:
g Adjective + ness:
h Verb + ing:
3 Nouns for people
a Verb + er/or:
decide decision, permit permission


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decide decision, permit permission
performance, acceptance, existence, preference
silent silence
Others are absence, intelligence, independence,
violence. Examples of ant ance are distance,
importance.
certainty, royalty, stupidity, nationality, security
happiness, illness, freshness, forgetfulness, blindness
a building, my feelings
walker, owner, builder, driver, doctor, editor
There are very many such nouns, especially with er.
NOTE We also use er in nouns for things, especially


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machines, e.g. a computer, a food mixer.
b Noun/Verb/Adjective + ist: journalist, motorist, nationalist, tourist
NOTE We can use ism to form an abstract noun, e.g.
journalism, nationalism.
1 Introduction
A suffix comes at the end of a word. For example, we can add the suffix merit to the
verb state to form the noun statement. There is sometimes a change of stress and a
there is an extra sound, e.g. possible possibility, apply application.


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Not all combinations are possible. We can say statement, amusement, punishment
etc, but we cannot add ment to every verb. The words have to be learnt as
vocabulary items.
2 Abstract nouns
Some common suffixes in abstract nouns are ment, tion/sion, ance/ence, ty, ness
and ing. We can use an abstract noun in nominalization. • 149
They agreed. their agreement
courageous . Sometimes PAGE 371
c Verb + ant/ent:
d Noun + an/ian:
e Noun + ess:
285 Suffixes


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d Noun + an/ian:
e Noun + ess:
285 Suffixes
applicant, assistant, inhabitant, servant, student
republican, electrician, historian, musician
For nationalities, e.g. Brazilian, • 288.
waitress, actress, hostess, stewardess, princess
a Most nouns for people can mean either males or females, so friends, students, doctors,
motorists etc include both sexes. If we need to say which sex, we say e.g. her boy-friend,
female students, women doctors. Some words to do with family relationships are different


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for male/female : husband/wife, father/mother, son/daughter, brother/sister, uncle/aunt. We
also normally make a difference between male/female with waiter/waitress and the other
examples with ess above. But some other words with ess are less usual and are now seen as
sexist. A manager can be male or female, so there is usually no need for the pair manager/
manageress.
b There is also a suffix man /m n/, which has a female equivalent woman, e.g. 'postman/


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'postwoman. Also policeman, businessman, chairman, salesman, spokesman. Some of these
are now seen as sexist, especially in a business context, and we can say business executive,
chairperson/chair, salesperson/sales representative, spokesperson, although the suffix person
is still not accepted by everyone.
f Verb + ee:
4 Verbs
a Adjective + ize:
b Adjective + en:
5 Adjectives
a Noun + al:
b Noun + ic:
c Verb/Noun + ive:
d Noun + ful:
e Noun + less:
f Noun + ous:
g Noun + y:


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e Noun + less:
f Noun + ous:
g Noun + y:
employee, payee, interviewee
This suffix usually has a passive meaning. Compare er and ee.
The company is the biggest employer in the town. It has two
thousand employees/workers.
modernize, popularize, privatize, centralize, legalize
There are many such verbs formed from abstract adjectives.
shorten, widen, brighten, harden, loosen
These verbs are formed from concrete adjectives.
national, industrial, cultural, additional, original


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heroic, artistic, photographic, energetic
active, effective, exclusive, informative, expensive
careful, hopeful, peaceful, beautiful, harmful
NOTE These adjectives end with a single l, but the adverbs have
two, e.g. carefully.
careless, hopeless, worthless, powerless
Less means 'without'. Painful and painless are opposites.
dangerous, luxurious, famous, courageous
salty, healthy, thirsty, wealthy, greedy 36 WORD-BUILDING PAGE 372
h Noun + ly: friendly, costly, cowardly, neighbourly, monthly


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i Verb + able/ible: eatable, manageable, excusable, acceptable, comprehensible,
defensible
These mean that something 'can be done'.
This sweater is washable. (= It can be washed.)
But not all adjectives in able/ible have this meaning, e.g.
pleasurable (= giving pleasure), valuable (= worth a lot).
j Verb + ing: exciting, fascinating • 203
k Verb + ed: excited, fascinated • 203
6 Adverbs
We form many adverbs from an adjective + ly, e.g. quickly. • 207
286 Vowel and consonant changes


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286 Vowel and consonant changes
2 There can be a different consonant sound.
That's what I believe. That's my belief.
Also: advise advice, descend descent, prove proof, speak speech
3 Sometimes more than one sound changes: choose choice, lend loan,
287 Words belonging to more than one class
1 Many words can be both verbs and nouns.
Verb: You mustn't delay. I hope I win.
Noun: a short delay my hope of victory
Some words of this kind are answer, attack, attempt, call, care, change, climb,


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control, copy, cost, damage, dance, delay, doubt, drink, drive, experience, fall, help,
hit, hope, interest, joke, laugh, look, love, need, promise, rest, ride, run, search, sleep,
smile, sound, swim, talk, trouble, visit, wait, walk, wash, wish.
NOTE For We swim/We have a swim, • 87.
2 Some verbs and nouns differ in their stress. The verb is usually stressed on the
second syllable, and the noun is stressed on the first.
Verb: How do you trans'port the goods?
Noun: What 'transport do you use?


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Noun: What 'transport do you use?
live life , succeed success, think thought
Also: blood bleed,food feed,full fill, lose loss, proud pride,
sell sale, shoot shot, sing song, sit seat, tell tale
1 Sometimes two related words have a different vowel sound.
It was very hot. We could feel the heat. Some words of this kind are conflict, contest, contrast, decrease, discount, export,
import, increase, insult, permit, produce, progress, protest, rebel, record, refund,
suspect, transfer, transport.


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suspect, transfer, transport.
NOTE For nouns formed from phrasal verbs, e.g. hold-up, •231(7).
Some concrete nouns can also be verbs.
He pocketed the money. (= put it in his pocket)
We've wallpapered this room. (= put wallpaper on it)
The man was gunned down. (= shot with a gun)
The goods were shipped to America. (= taken by ship)
Some others are bottle (wine), box, brake, butter (bread), garage (a car), glue,
hammer, mail, oil, parcel, (tele)phone.
Some adjectives can also be verbs.


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Some adjectives can also be verbs.
This wind will soon dry the clothes. (= make them dry)
The clothes will soon dry. (= become dry)
Some words of this kind are calm, cool, dry, empty, narrow, smooth, warm, wet.
NOTE Some adjectives with similar meanings take en as verbs, e.g. widen. • 285(4b)
288 Nationality words
1 We form nationality words from the name of a country: Italy Italian,
France French, Japan Japanese. We can use them in different ways.


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NOTE Some of these words do not refer to a political nation, e.g. European, Jewish.
a As an adjective
Italian food a French town Japanese technology a Russian novel
b As the name of a language
I learnt Italian at evening classes.
Do you speak Russian?
I don't know any Greek.
c Referring to a specific person or group of people
Debbie is married to an Italian.
There are some Russians staying at the hotel.
The Japanese were looking round the cathedral.
d Referring to a whole people


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d Referring to a whole people
Italians are passionate about football.
The French are proud of their language.
These expressions take a plural verb.
We can also say e.g. Italian people, Russian people.
PAGE 373 288 Nationality words
The stress can make a difference to the vowel sounds. For example, progress as a
verb is and as a noun 36 WORD-BUILDING PAGE 374
2 There are different kinds of nationality words.
a Many end in an: Italian, American, Mexican. We can add s to form a plural noun.


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Three Italians are doing the course.
(The) Americans think they can see Europe in a week.
NOTE
a To this group also belong Greek, Czech, Thai, Arab and words ending in i, e.g. Pakistani,
Israeli.
The Greeks invented democracy.
b The language of the Arabs is Arabic.
b Some end in ese: Chinese, Portuguese. We cannot add s.
Several Chinese (people) were waiting in the queue.
When we talk about a whole people, we must use the or people.
The Chinese welcome/Chinese people welcome western tourists.


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NOTE Swiss (= from Switzerland) also belongs in this group.
c With some words, the adjective is different from the noun.
She's Danish./She's a Dane.
I like Danish people./I like (the) Danes.
Also: Swedish/a Swede, Finnish/a Finn, Polish/a Pole, Spanish/a Spaniard,
Turkish/a Turk, Jewish/a Jew.
NOTE
From Britain we form the adjective British.
There are a lot of British people in this part of Spain.
The nouns Brit and Briton are not very usual in spoken British English.


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There are a lot of Brits/Britons in this part of Spain.
This usage is rather journalistic. Brit is informal. The Americans say Britisher.
For the whole people we say the British.
The British prefer houses to flats.
d With some words, the noun has the suffix man
He's English./He's an Englishman.
Englishmen are reserved.
Also: Welsh/a Welshman, Irish/an Irishman, French/a Frenchman, Dutch/a
Dutchman.
For a whole people, we can use the adjective with the or people.


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The English are/English people are reserved.
NOTE
a It is less usual to use woman as a suffix, but we can use an adjective + woman.
The English woman works at the university.
b When we talk about people from Scotland, we can use the adjective Scottish or the nouns
Scot and Scotsman.
He's Scottish./He's a Scot/He's a Scotsman.
How do you like Scottish people/Scots?
We use Scotch mainly in fixed expressions such as Scotch whisky. 288 Nationality words
3 Here is an overview of nationality words.


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3 Here is an overview of nationality words.
Adjective Person/man A whole people
Africa African an African Africans
America American an American (the) Americans
Arab/Arabic an Arab (the) Arabs
Asia Asian an Asian Asians
Australia Australian an Australian (the) Australians
Austria Austrian an Austrian (the) Austrians
Belgium Belgian a Belgian (the) Belgians
Brazil Brazilian a Brazilian (the) Brazilians
Britain British • (2c) Note the British
China Chinese a Chinese the Chinese


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China Chinese a Chinese the Chinese
Czech Republic Czech a Czech (the) Czechs
Denmark Danish a Dane (the) Danes
England - English an Englishman the English
Europe European a European Europeans
Finland Finnish a Finn (the) Finns
France French a Frenchman the French
Germany German a German (the) Germans
Greece Greek a Greek (the) Greeks
Holland Dutch a Dutchman the Dutch
Hungary Hungarian a Hungarian (the) Hungarians
India Indian an Indian (the) Indians
Ireland Irish an Irishman the Irish


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Ireland Irish an Irishman the Irish
Israel Israeli an Israeli (the) Israelis
Italy Italian an Italian (the) Italians
Japan Japanese a Japanese the Japanese
Jewish a Jew (the) Jews
Mexico Mexican a Mexican (the) Mexicans
Norway Norwegian a Norwegian (the) Norwegians
Pakistan Pakistani a Pakistani (the) Pakistanis
Poland Polish a Pole (the) Poles
Portugal Portuguese a Portuguese the Portuguese
Russia Russian a Russian (the) Russians
Scotland Scottish a Scotia Scotsman (the) Scots


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Scotland Scottish a Scotia Scotsman (the) Scots
Spain Spanish a Spaniard the Spanish
Sweden Swedish a Swede (the) Swedes
Switzerland Swiss a Swiss the Swiss
Thailand Thai a Thai (the) Thais
Turkey Turkish a Turk (the) Turks
Wales Welsh a Welshman the Welsh
PAGE 375 PAGE 376
37
Word endings: pronunciation and
spelling
289 Summary
Some words have grammatical endings. A noun can have a plural or possessive
form: friends, friend's. A verb can have an s-form, ed-form or ing-form: asks, asked,


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asking. Some adjectives can have a comparative and superlative form: quicker,
quickest. A word can also end with a suffix: argument, idealist, weekly, drinkable.
When we add these endings to a word, there are sometimes changes in
pronunciation or spelling.
The s/es ending • 290
290 The s/es ending
To form a regular noun plural or the s-form of a verb, we usually add s.
rooms games looks opens hides
After a sibilant sound we add es.
kisses watches bushes taxes


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kisses watches bushes taxes
But if the word ends in e, we add s.
places supposes prizes
match matches
The ed ending •291
wait waited
Leaving out e • 292
make making insure insurance
The doubling of consonants • 293
big bigger regret regrettable
Consonant + y • 294
easy easily beauty beautiful 2 A few nouns ending in o add es.
potatoes tomatoes heroes echoes
But most add s.
radios stereos pianos photos studios discos kilos zoos
291 The ed ending


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291 The ed ending
1 The ed-form of most regular verbs is simply verb + ed.
played walked seemed offered filled
If the word ends in e, we add d.
moved continued pleased smiled
NOTE
For the doubling of consonants before ed, • 293.
For y before ed, • 294.
2 The ending is pronounced /t/ after a voiceless sound, /d/ after a voiced sound and
292 Leaving out e
We normally leave out e when it comes before an ing-form.
make making shine shining use using
But we keep a double e before ing.


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But we keep a double e before ing.
see seeing agree agreeing
When e comes before ed, er or est, we do not write a double e.
type typed late later fine finest
We usually leave out e before other endings that start with a vowel, e.g. able, ize, al.
love lovable private privatize culture cultural
NOTE
PAGE 377 292 Leaving out e
or after a sibilant.
3 The ending is pronounced /s/ after a voiceless sound, /z/ after a voiced sound and
Voiceless: hopes , fits , clocks


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Voiceless: hopes , fits , clocks
Voiced: cabs , rides , days , throws
Sibilant: loses or , bridges or , washes or
4 The possessive form of a noun is pronounced in the same way.
Mick's the teacher's Mrs Price's or
But we do not write es for the possessive, even after a sibilant.
Mr Jones's the boss's
after /t/ or /d/.
, guided, handed, expectedwaited
jumped /pt/, baked /kt/, wished
robbed /bd/, closed /zd/, enjoyed , allowed
Voiceless:
Voiced:
or
1
2
3


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Voiceless:
Voiced:
or
1
2
3
But when a word ends in ce /s/ or ge , we keep the e before a or o.
enforce enforceable courage courageous
We can also keep the e in some other words: saleable/salable, likeable/likable, mileage/milage. 37 WORD ENDINGS PAGE 378
4 We keep e before a consonant.
hate hates nice nicely care careful
NOTE
Exceptions are words ending in ue: argue argument, true truly, due duly.
Also: whole wholly, judge judgment/judgement.


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Also: whole wholly, judge judgment/judgement.
5 To form an adverb from an adjective ending in a consonant + le, we change e to y.
simple simply possible possibly
To form an adverb from an adjective in ic, we add ally.
dramatic dramatically idiotic idiotically
NOTE An exception is publicly.
293 The doubling of consonants
1 Doubling happens in a one-syllable word that ends with one written vowel and
one written consonant, such as win, put, sad, plan. We double the consonant
before a vowel.


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before a vowel.
win winner put putting sad saddest plan planned
NOTE
3 The rule about doubling is also true for words of more than one syllable, but only if
the last syllable is stressed.
for'get forgetting prefer preferred
We do not usually double a consonant in an unstressed syllable.
'open 'opening 'enter 'entered
NOTE
In British English there is some doubling in an unstressed syllable. We usually double l.
travel travelling tunnel tunnelled marvel marvellous
jewel jeweller


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jewel jeweller
We also double p in some verbs.
handicap handicapped worship worshipping
But in the USA there is usually a single l or p in an unstressed syllable, e.g. traveling,
worshiping.
4 When a word ends in ll and we add ly, we do not write a third l.
full fully
a Compare top tapping and tope taping.
b The consonant also doubles before y: fog foggy.
2 We do not double y, w or x.
stay staying slow slower fix fixed
We do not double when there are two consonants.
hold holding ask asking


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hold holding ask asking
And we do not double after two written vowels.
keep keeping broad broader 294 Consonant + y
294 Consonant + y
When a word ends in a consonant + y, the y changes to ie before s.
study studies lorry lorries
Before most other endings, the y changes to i.
study studied silly sillier lucky luckily
happy happiness
We do not change y after a vowel.
day days buy buyer stay stayed
NOTE
a The possessive forms are singular noun + apostrophe + s, and plural noun + apostrophe.


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the lady's name the ladies' names
b A one-syllable word usually keeps y before ly: shyly, slyly, dryly/drily.
c We do not change y when it is part of a person's name: Mr and Mrs Grundy the
Grundys.
d We do not change y in by: stand-bys, lay-bys.
PAGE 379
2 We keep y before i.
copy copying hurry hurrying
NOTE
We change ie to y before ing.
die dying lie lying
But pay, lay and say have irregular ed-forms: paid
Also day daily.
, laid , said PAGE 380
38Irregular noun plurals
295 Summary


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38Irregular noun plurals
295 Summary
Most countable nouns have a regular plural in s or es.
hands dates buses.
For details of spelling and pronunciation, • 290.
But some nouns have an irregular plural. Here are some examples.
Vowel and consonant changes • 296
man men wife wives
Nouns which do not change in the plural • 297
one/two aircraft one/two sheep
Irregular plural endings. • 298
children criteria stimuli
NOTE
a We also use men and women in words like Frenchmen, sportswomen.


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b The plural people is more usual and less formal than persons.
Several people were waiting for the lift.
A maximum of six persons may occupy this lift.
A people is a large group such as a nation.
The Celts were a tall, fair-skinned people.
One day the peoples of this world will live in peace.
2 With some nouns we change f to v and add es/s.
loaf loaves thief thieves life lives
Also: calves, halves, knives, leaves, shelves, wives, wolves
NOTE


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NOTE
Some other nouns in f/fe are regular: chiefs, beliefs, cliffs, roofs, safes. A few have alternative
forms, e.g. scarfs /scarves.
1 Some plurals are formed by changing the vowel sound.
foot feet goose geese man men
tooth teeth mouse mice woman women
296 Vowel and consonant changes 5 The usual plural of penny is pence, e.g. fifty pence. Pennies are individual penny
coins.
297 Nouns which do not change in the plural
Some nouns have the same form in the singular and plural.


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Singular: One aircraft was shot down.
Plural: Two aircraft were shot down.
These nouns are aircraft, hovercraft, spacecraft etc; some animals, e.g. sheep, deer,
some kinds offish, e.g. cod, salmon; and some nouns ending in s, e.g. headquarters,
means. • 154(3)
NOTE
a Some measurements (e.g. pound, foot) can be singular after a plural number, e.g. two
pound/ pounds fifty.
b For six hundred and twenty, • 191(1) Note c.
analysis analyses crisis crises hypothesis hypotheses


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PAGE 381 298 Irregular plural endings
3 Some nouns have a regular written plural in ths, but the pronunciation of th
changes.
path paths
Also: mouths, youths (= young people)
NOTE
Some other nouns in th are regular: months, births, deaths. Some have alternative forms,
e.g. truths or
4 The plural of house is houses
298 Irregular plural endings
1 en
child children ox oxen
2 a
3 i
criterion criteria phenomenon phenomena medium media
curriculum curricula


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curriculum curricula
NOTE Some nouns in on and um are regular, e.g. electrons, museums.
5 es
4 ae
formula formulae / formulas
stimulus stimuli cactus cacti /cactuses
nucleus nuclei / nucleuses
NOTE Some nouns in us are regular: choruses, bonuses. PAGE 382
39Irregular verb forms
299 Summary
A regular verb takes the endings s, ed and ing. For example, base form look,
s-form looks, past tense looked, ing-form looking and past/passive participle
looked. For more details, • 58.


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looked. For more details, • 58.
List of irregular verbs • 300
Some verbs have ah irregular past tense and participle.
Base form: Did you write the letter?
Past tense: I wrote the letter yesterday.
Past participle: I've written the letter.
We also use the irregular forms after a prefix such as re, un, out, mis.
I've rewritten the letter. He undid the knot.
Special participle forms • 301
Some special participle forms come before a noun.
a drunken riot
300 List of irregular verbs


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a drunken riot
300 List of irregular verbs
Base form Past tense Past/passive participle Base form Past tense Past/passive participle
PAGE 383 300 List of irregular verbs 39 IRREGULAR VERB FORMS PAGE 384
Base form Past tense Past/passive participle Base form Past tense Past/passive participle
PAGE 385 300 List of irregular verbs 39 IRREGULAR VERB FORMS PAGE 386
Base form Past tense Past/passive participle 300 List of irregular verbs
NOTE


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NOTE
a For verbs which have forms both in ed and t, e.g. burned / burnt, dream / dreamt, • 303(11).
b Cost as a transitive verb is regular.
They've costed the project. (= estimated the cost)
Base form Past tense Past/passive participle
PAGE 387
c The third person singular of do is does
d Fit is usually regular in Britain but irregular in the US.
e In GB the past tense of forbid is forbad or forbade, pronounced . In the US it is
forbade, pronounced


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forbade, pronounced
f For the past participle gotten (US), • 303(5d).
g The third person singular of go is goes
For gone and been, • 84(6).
h We use hanged only to talk about hanging a person.
i The third person singular of have is has
j For the difference between lay and lie, • 11 (2) Note b. Lie (= tell an untruth) is regular.
k The third person singular of say is says
1 Shined means 'polished': I've shined my shoes. Compare The sun shone.
m We use sped for movement.
They sped down the hill.


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They sped down the hill.
But we say speeded up (= went faster),
n Weave is regular when it expresses movement.
We weaved our way through the traffic. 39 IRREGULAR VERB FORMS . PAGE 388
301 Special participle forms
There are some special past/passive participle forms that we use mainly before a
noun. Compare these sentences.
have + participle: The ship has sunk. The metal has melted.
Participle + noun: a sunken ship molten metal


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Participle + noun: a sunken ship molten metal
We can also form special participles from drink, shrink, prove, learn and bless.
a drunken spectator a shrunken old man a proven fact
NOTE
These participles can have special meanings and are used only in limited contexts.
For example, we talk about molten metal but NOT molten ice.
a learned professor a blessed relief 40American English
302 Summary
The grammar of British English and American English is very similar. There are a


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few differences but not very many, and most of them are minor points.
Differences with verbs • 303
Differences with noun phrases • 304
Differences with adjectives and adverbs • 305
Differences with prepositions • 306
Differences with conjunctions • 307
American spelling • 308
There are also some spelling differences, such as GB colour, US color.
The main differences between British and American English are in pronunciation


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and in some items of vocabulary. A good dictionary such as the Oxford Wordpower
Dictionary or the Oxford Advanced Learner's Dictionary will give American variants
in spelling, pronunciation and usage. The Hutchinson British-American Dictionary
by Norman Moss explains the meanings of words which are familiar in one
country but not in the other.
303 Differences with verbs
1 Linking verb + noun phrase
The British can use a noun phrase after a linking verb such as be, seem, look, feel.
• 9(1)


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• 9(1)
Mainly GB: It looks a lovely evening.
She seemed (to be) a competent pilot.
The Americans do not use this pattern except with be and become.
US: It looks like/It looks to be a lovely evening.
She seemed to be a competent pilot.
PAGE 389 40 AMERICAN ENGLISH PAGE 390
2 Do for an action
The British sometimes use do to refer to an action. • 38 (2c)
GB: He practises the piano, but not as often as he might (do).
You should reply if you haven't (done) already.


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You should reply if you haven't (done) already.
This usage is not found in American English.
US: He practices the piano, but not as often as he might.
You should reply if you haven't already.
But Americans use do so.
GB/US: You should reply if you haven't done so already.
3 Do for emphasis
The British can use do to emphasize an offer or invitation in the imperative form.
GB: (Do) have a glass of wine.
This usage is less common in American English.
US: Have a glass of wine.


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US: Have a glass of wine.
Americans also avoid the emphatic Do let's... and the negative Don't let's...
• 19 (6a)
GB/US: Let's not invite them.
GB only: Don't let's invite them.
NOTE Let's don't invite them is possible in informal American English but not in Britain.
4 Question tags
Americans use tags much less often than the British. The British may use them
several times in a conversation, but this would sound strange to an American.


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Americans use tags when they expect agreement. They do not often use them to
persuade or argue.
GB/US: Mary likes ice-cream, doesn't she?
GB only: You'll just have to try harder, won't you?
Americans often use the tags right? and OK?
Mainly US: You're going to meet me, right?
We'll take the car, OK?
5 Have, have got and have gotten
a Have and have got
GB: I've got/I have some money.
US (spoken): I've got some money.
US (written: I have some money. PAGE 391 303 Differences with verbs


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b Negatives and questions with have and have got
GB/US: We don't have much time. Do you have enough money?
Mainly GB: We haven't got much time. Have you got enough money?
GB only: We haven't much time. Have you enough money?
c Negatives and questions with have to and have got to
GB/US: You don't have to go. Do you have to go?
GB only: You haven't got to go. Have you got to go?
d Got and gotten
GB: He's got a new job. (= He has a new job.)
Your driving has got better. (= It has become better.)


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US: He's got a new job. (= He has a new job.)
He's gotten a new job. (= He has found a new job.)
Your driving has gotten better. (= It has become better.)
e Get someone to do something and have someone do something
GB/US: We got the waiter to bring another bottle.
Mainly US: We had the waiter bring another bottle.
6 Present perfect and past simple
Both the British and the Americans use the present perfect for something in the
past which is seen as related to the present. • 65(2)


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GB/US: I've just met an old friend.
Dave has already eaten his lunch.
Have you ever seen St Paul's Cathedral?
I've never had a passport.
But Americans sometimes use the past simple in such contexts especially with just,
already, yet, ever and never.
Mainly US: I just met an old friend.
Dave already ate his lunch.
Did you ever see the Empire State Building?
I never had a passport.
7 Gone and been
The British use been for 'gone and come back', • 84(6), but the Americans mostly
use gone.


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use gone.
GB/US: Have you ever been to Scotland?
US only: Have you ever gone to Florida?
8 Will and shall
The British use will or shall in the first person, • 71(2). Americans do not often use
shall.
GB: We will/shall contact you.
US: We will contact you. 40 AMERICAN ENGLISH PAGE 392
The British use shall in offers, but Americans prefer should.
Mainly GB: Shall I meet you at the entrance?
Mainly US: Should I meet you at the entrance?
The British can also use Shall we... ? in suggestions.


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Mainly GB: Shall we go for a walk?
Americans would say How about a walk? or Would you like to take a walk?
9 Need and dare
Need, • 92(3), and dare, •101, can be ordinary verbs. The British can also use
them as modal verbs.
GB/US: He doesn't need to see the inspector. Do we dare to ask?
Mainly GB: He needn't see the inspector. Dare we ask?
10 Can't and mustn't
In Britain one use of must is to say that something is necessarily true, • 95(1). The
negative is can't. Americans can also use mustn't.


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GB/US: There's no reply. They can't be home.
US only: There's no reply. They mustn't be home.
11 Learned and learnt
Some verbs have both regular and irregular forms: learned or learnt,
dreamed /dri:md/ or dreamt /dremt/ etc. The irregular forms are not very usual in
America. The British say dreamed or dreamt; the Americans say dreamed.
The verbs dive and fit are regular in Britain but they can be irregular in America.
GB/US: dive - dived - dived fit - fitted - fitted


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GB/US: dive - dived - dived fit - fitted - fitted
US only: dive - dove - dived fit-fit-fit
NOTE Fit is irregular in America only when it means 'be the right size'.
GB: The suit fitted him very well.
US: The suit fit him very well.
It is always regular when it means 'make something the right size' or 'put something in the
right place'.
GB/US: The tailor fitted him with a new suit.
12 The subjunctive
We can sometimes use the subjunctive in a that-clause, • 242. In Britain the


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subjunctive is rather formal. Americans use it more often.
Mainly GB: My parents prefer that my brother lives/should live at home.
Mainly US: My parents prefer that my brother live at home. 304 Differences with noun phrases
1 Group nouns
The British can use a singular or a plural verb after a group noun. • 156
GB: The committee needs/need more time.
Holland isn't/aren't going to win.
The Americans prefer a singular verb.
US: The committee needs/need more time.


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US: The committee needs/need more time.
After a name the Americans always use a singular verb.
US: Holland isn't going to win.
2 Two nouns together
When we use two nouns together, the first is not normally plural: a grocery store, a
word processor, • 147(4). There are some exceptions in Britain but Americans
almost always use a singular noun.
GB: a careers adviser an antique/antiques dealer
US: a career counselor an antique dealer
3 The with musical instruments


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3 The with musical instruments
The British use the with a musical instrument (play the piano), but Americans
sometimes leave it out (play piano).
4 The with hospital and university
The British talk about a patient in hospital and a student at (the) university, • 168.
Americans say that someone is in the hospital or at the university.
5 This and that on the telephone
People in both countries say This is... to say who they are, but usage is different
when they ask who the other person is.


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when they ask who the other person is.
GB: Who is that?
Mainly US: Who is this?
6 The pronoun one
Americans do not often use one meaning 'people in general'; and they do not use
one's or oneself.
GB: One must consider one's legal position.
US: You must consider your legal position.
People must consider their legal position.
PAGE 393 304 Differences with noun phrases 40 AMERICAN ENGLISH PAGE 394
7 Numbers
The British use and between hundred and the rest of a number, but Americans can


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leave it out.
GB/US: two hundred and fifty
US only: two hundred fifty
8 Dates
There are a number of different ways of saying and writing dates, • 195(2).
Americans often say July fourth. In Britain the fourth of July and July the fourth are
the most usual.
305 Differences with adjectives and adverbs
1 Well, ill etc
The adjectives well, fine, ill and unwell referring to health usually come in
predicative position. • 200(2)
GB/US: Our secretary is ill.


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GB/US: Our secretary is ill.
But they can be attributive, especially in America.
Mainly US: an ill man
NOTE
Sick and healthy can go in both positions. In Britain be sick means to vomit, to bring up food.
GB: Trevor's daughter was sick all over the carpet.
2 Adjectives and adverbs
In informal speech we can sometimes use an adjective form instead of an adverb.
Americans do this more than the British.
GB/US: That was really nice of her.
It certainly is raining.


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It certainly is raining.
Mainly US: That was real nice of her.
It sure is raining.
3 Somewhere and someplace
In informal American English everyplace, someplace and noplace can be used as
well as everywhere, somewhere and nowhere.
GB/US: Let's go out somewhere.
US only: Let's go out someplace.
306 Differences with prepositions
1 Out (of) and round/around
The British normally say look out of the window, although look out the window is


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possible in informal speech. Americans prefer look out the window. The British say
either round the park or around the park. Americans prefer around the park. 307 Differences with conjunctions
2 Except for and aside from
Where the British use except for, Americans can also use aside from.
GB/US: I'm all right now, except for a headache.
US only: I'm all right now, aside from a headache.
3 Through and till/until
Americans can use through for the time when something finishes.


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US: They will stay in New York (from January) through April.
GB/US: They will stay in London (from January) till/until April.
With through April, the time includes the whole of April. With until April they may
leave before the end of April. We can also express the meaning of through like this.
GB/US: They will stay in London until the end of April.
In British English we can also use inclusive. This is rather formal.
Mainly GB: Monday to Friday inclusive
US only: Monday through Friday


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US only: Monday through Friday
4 Idiomatic uses
GB US
in Oxford Street
at the weekend/at weekends
a player in the team
twenty (minutes) past ten
ten (minutes) to three
write to someone
visit someone
talk to someone
protest about/against something
on Fifth Avenue
on the weekend/on weekends
a player on the team
twenty (minutes) past/after ten
ten (minutes) to/of three
write someone/write to someone
visit someone/visit with someone
talk to/with someone
protest something


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talk to/with someone
protest something
protest about/against something
5 Prepositions after different
GB: Your room is different from/to ours.
US: Your room is different from/than ours.
307 Differences with conjunctions
1 Go/Come and...
Americans can leave out and from this pattern.
GB/US: Go and take a look outside.
Mainly US: Go take a look outside.
PAGE 395 2 In case and lest
The British use in case meaning 'because something might happen', • 259(7).
Americans use so or lest. Lest is formal.


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Americans use so or lest. Lest is formal.
Mainly GB: Go quietly in case anyone hears you.
GB/US: Go quietly so no one can hear you.
Mainly US: Go quietly lest anyone hear you. (formal).
In America, in case often means 'if.
US: If you need/In case you need any help, let me know.
3 Immediately
Americans do not use immediately as a conjunction.
GB/US: As soon as I saw him, I recognized him.
GB only: Immediately I saw him, I recognized him.
308 American spelling


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308 American spelling
Some words end in our in Britain but in or in America: color, labor, neighbor.
Some words end in tre in Britain but in ter in America: center, liter.
Some verbs can end either with ize or with ise in Britain but only with ize in
America: apologize, organize, realize.
In Britain there is doubling of l in an unstressed syllable; • 293(3) Note. In some
American words there is no doubling: marvelous, signaled, councilor.
Here are some words with different spellings.


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Here are some words with different spellings.
GB US GB US
analyse analyze labelled labeled
apologize/apologise apologize labour labor
axe axe/ax litre liter
behaviour behavior marvellous marvelous
catalogue catalog/catalogue metre (= 100 cm) meter
centre center neighbour neighbor
cheque (money) check organize/organise organize
colour color plough plow
councillor councilor practise (verb) practice (verb
counsellor counselor practice (noun) and noun)
defence defense/defence pyjamas pajamas


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defence defense/defence pyjamas pajamas
dialogue dialog/dialogue realize/realise realize
favour favor signalled signaled
grey gray/grey skilful skillful
honour honor theatre theater
humour humor through through
jail/gaol jail thru (informal)
jeweller jeweler travelling traveling
kerb (edge of curb tyre (on a wheel) tire
pavement)
40 AMERICAN ENGLISH PAGE 396 PAGE 397
Glossary
abstract noun See concrete noun.
action verb a verb that refers to something happening or changing, e.g. do, walk,


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buy, speak • 62
active See passive.
active participle the ing-form of a verb used after be in the continuous (I was
watching) and in other patterns • 134
adding relative clause a clause with commas around it that adds extra
information, e.g. Bernard, who was feeling unwell, left early. • 274
adjective a word like big, new, special, famous • 197
adjective phrase An adjective phrase is either an adjective on its own, e.g. sweet,


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tall, hopeful, or an adjective with an adverb of degree, e.g. very sweet, a lot taller,
quite hopeful.
adverb In the sentence The time passed slowly, the word slowly is an adverb.
Adverbs are words like easily, there, sometimes, quite, possibly. They express
ideas such as how, when or where something happens, or how true
something is.
adverb phrase An adverb phrase is either an adverb on its own, e.g. carefully,
often, probably, or an adverb which is modified by an adverb of degree, e.g. very


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carefully, more often, quite probably.
adverbial The adverb late, the phrase in a hurry and the clause because I was cold
all function as adverbials in these sentences: The show started late. We did
everything in a hurry. I put a coat on because I was cold.
adverbial clause In the sentence I'll ring you when I get home, the clause when I
get home functions as an adverbial. Compare I'll ring you later. • 248
agent The agent is the person, animal or thing doing the action. In an active


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sentence it is the subject: Max told me the news. In a passive sentence there is
sometimes an agent after by: I was told the news by Max.
agreement the choice of the correct verb form after a subject: My ear torts but My
ears hurt. •150
apostrophe In the phrase Karen's friend there is an apostrophe between Karen
and s.
apposition In the sentence The Chairman, Mr Byers, was absent, the two noun
phrases are in apposition. • 14


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phrases are in apposition. • 14
article A/an is the indefinite article, and the is the definite article.
aspect A verb can have continuous aspect (is walking, was looking) or perfect
aspect (has walked, had looked), or both (have been waiting).
attributive the position of an adjective before a noun, e.g. a cold day
auxiliary verb a verb such as be, have, do, will, can which we use with an ordinary
verb • 60 (2)
bare infinitive an infinitive without to, e.g. come, drive •115


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base form the form of a verb without an ending, e.g. come, call, decide
classifying relative clause a relative clause that tells us what kind is meant, e.g. a
computer that will correct my spelling • 272 (3b)
clause The sentence We stayed at home is a single clause. The sentence We stayed
at home because it rained has two clauses. We stayed at home is the main clause, GLOSSARY PAGE 398
and because it rained is the sub clause. A clause always has a verb (stayed,


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rained). The verb can be finite or non-finite. In the sentence We all wanted to go
out, there is a finite clause with wanted and a non-finite clause with to go. See
finite.
comment adverb e.g. luckily, incredibly • 215
comparative Comparative forms are older, more famous, more efficiently etc.
• 217
complement a noun phrase or adjective phrase that comes after a linking verb
such as be: You're the boss, Al looked unhappy, • 9. These complements relate


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to the subject; they are subject complements. See also object complement.
compound a word made up of other words, e.g. something (some + thing),
wristwatch (wrist + watch)
concrete noun A concrete noun is a noun referring to something that we can see
or touch, e.g. man, bottle, grass, shop. An abstract noun refers to an idea, quality
or action, something we cannot see or touch, e.g. science, excitement, stupidity,
routine.


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routine.
conditional clause a clause expressing a condition, e.g. If you need a ticket, I'll get
you one. • 255
conjunction A conjunction is a word like and, but, because, when, that, which
links two clauses.
consonant See vowel.
continuous a verb form with be and an active participle, e.g. The film is starting
now. • 61(4)
continuous infinitive e.g. to be doing, to be working
co-ordinate clause a clause linked to another by and, but or or


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countable noun a noun that can be either singular or plural, e.g. bag(s), road(s),
hour(s) • 144
definite article the word the
degree An adverb of degree is a word like very, rather, quite. • 212
demonstrative This, that, these and those are demonstrative determiners or
pronouns. • 175
determiner a word that can come before a noun to form a noun phrase, e.g. a, the,
this, my • 143(2a)
direct object See indirect object.
direct speech See indirect speech.


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direct speech See indirect speech.
echo question a form which requests the repetition of information, e.g. She's gone
to Siberia. ~ Where has she gone? • 35(1)
echo tag a short question form expressing interest, e.g. I play chess. ~ Oh, do you?
• 35(2)
emphasis/emphatic/emphasize making a word or phrase more important,
drawing special attention to a word or phrase
emphatic pronoun a pronoun such as myself or themselves, emphasizing a noun
phrase, e.g. The Queen herself visited the scene. •186


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empty subject In the sentence It was raining, it is an empty subject. It has no
meaning, but we use it because we need a subject.
empty verb In expressions like have a wash, give a laugh, have and give are empty
verbs. It is the nouns wash and laugh which express the action. • 87
end position at the end of a sentence
exclamation a special pattern with how or what, e.g. What a time you've been! or
any sentence spoken with emphasis and feeling, e.g. Quick! PAGE 399 GLOSSARY


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finite A finite verb is one like goes, waited, was causing, have seen, will be, can
carry. It either has a tense (present or past) or a modal verb. It can be the verb in
a simple one-clause sentence. A non-finite verb is an infinitive, gerund or
participle, e.g. to go, waiting. A clause is a finite clause (she goes to college) or a
non-finite clause (going to college), depending on whether the verb is finite or
not. • 59
focus adverbial e.g. only, even, especially • 213


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focus adverbial e.g. only, even, especially • 213
formal We speak in a more formal style to strangers than we do to our friends. We
use formal language to be polite, or on official occasions. A business letter is
more formal than a letter to a friend. I am afraid I have no information is more
formal than Sorry, I don't know.
frequency An adverbial of frequency tells us how often, e.g. always, twice a week
• 211
front position at the beginning of a sentence
full form See short form.


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full form See short form.
future continuous a form with will + be + active participle: I will be playing golf
all afternoon. • 75
future perfect a form with will + have + past participle: We will have saved enough
money soon. • 79
gender The words waiter (male/masculine) and waitress (female/feminine) are
different in gender.
gerund the ing-form of a verb used like a noun, e.g. Sailing is fun. I've given up
smoking.
gerund clause a clause with a gerund as its verb, e.g. Running a business isn't


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easy. I like sitting outside.
group noun (or collective noun) a noun referring to a group, e.g. team, gang,
class, audience • 156
identifying relative clause (or defining relative clause) a relative clause that tells
us which one is meant, e.g. the man who lives next door • 272(3a)
idiom/idiomatic a group of words with a meaning which is different from the
meanings of the individual words, e.g. come off (- succeed), make up your
mind (= decide)


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mind (= decide)
imperative the base form of the verb used to give orders, express good wishes etc:
Wait there. Have a good time. • 19
indefinite article a or an
indirect object In the sentence They gave the children presents, the noun phrase
presents is the direct object, and the noun phrase the children is the indirect
object. The indirect object often expresses the person receiving something. • 10
indirect question How much is this picture? is a direct question. In an indirect


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question, we put the question in a sub clause: Could you tell me how much this
picture is?
indirect speech Direct speech is reporting someone's words by repeating them: 'I
know the answer,' Karen said. Indirect speech is giving the meaning in our own
words: Karen said she knew the answer. • 263
infinitive The infinitive is the base form of the verb, e.g. They let us stay the night.
We often use it with to, e.g. They invited us to stay the night. • 115


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infinitive clause a clause with an infinitive as its verb, e.g. He decided to open the
box. You'll need to work hard.
informal We use an informal style in everyday conversation and when we write to
a friend. See also formal. GLOSSARY PAGE 400
ing-form the form of a verb with ing added, e.g. making, flying, used as gerund or
active participle.
intonation the rise and fall of the voice • 54
intransitive verb a verb that cannot take an object, although it may have a


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prepositional phrase after it, e.g. Something happened. You must listen to me.
• 8
invert/inversion Inversion means changing the order. In the question Has the
play started? there is inversion of subject and auxiliary verb (The play has
started.).
irregular See regular.
linking adverb e.g. also, however, finally • 216
linking verb a verb like be, seem, become, look, feel that can take a complement
• 9
literary A literary style is a formal style typical of literature, of writing.


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main clause A sentence has one or more main clauses, e.g. It rained or It rained
and I got wet. A main clause can have a sub clause, e.g. I woke up when the alarm
went off. Here I woke up is the main clause, and when the alarm went off is a sub
clause. A main clause can stand on its own, but a sub clause is part of the main
clause. •239(2)
main verb the finite verb in a main clause, e.g. I like classical music. Hearing a
knock, he jumped up. Your friend will expect us to be ready.


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manner An adverbial of manner tells us how something happens, e.g. sadly, in a
hurry. • 209
mid position in the middle of the sentence, after an auxiliary verb but before an
ordinary verb, e.g. I was just writing a note. For details • 208(4).
modal (auxiliary) verb The modal verbs are will, would, shall, should, can, could,
may, might, must, need, ought to, dare.
modifier/modify In the phrase a narrow street, the adjective narrow is a modifier.


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It modifies the noun street. It changes our idea of the street by giving more
information about it. Other kinds of words can modify: I've got a tennis ball. We
stopped suddenly.
nationality word e.g. English, French, Japanese, Mexican • 288
negative A negative sentence has n't or not or a negative word such as never,
nothing. • 17
nominalization expressing the meaning of a clause (e.g. They are enthusiastic) in
a noun phrase (Their enthusiasm is obvious.) • 149
non-finite See finite.


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non-finite See finite.
noun a word like desk, team, apple, information •141
noun clause In the sentence I knew that England had won, the noun clause that
England had won functions as the object. Compare I knew the result. • 260
noun phrase a noun or pronoun on its own, e.g. butter, Helen, you, or a group of
words that can function as a subject, object or complement, e.g. a shop, my bag,
a lot of spare time • 143
object In the sentence He was wearing a sweater, the noun phrase a sweater is the


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object. The object usually comes after the verb. See also indirect object,
prepositional object.
object complement a complement that relates to the object of the sentence, e.g.
The quarrel made Al unhappy. They voted her their leader. • 11
ordinary verb a verb such as write, stay, invite, sell, not an auxiliary verb PAGE 401 GLOSSARY
pair noun a plural noun like jeans, pyjamas, glasses • 155
participle See active participle, past participle, passive participle.


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participle clause a clause with a participle as its verb, e.g. Arriving home, I found
a parcel on the doorstep. We saw a ship launched by the Queen.
passive The sentence Someone stole my coat is active, but My coat was stolen is
passive. A passive verb has be and a passive participle: was stolen. • 103
passive gerund e.g. No one likes being made to look foolish.
passive infinitive e.g. to be done, to be expected
passive participle the form of a verb used after be in the passive, e.g. The room


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was cleaned, and used before a noun, e.g. We don't eat frozen food.
past continuous a form with the past of be and an active participle: It was raining
at the time. • 66
past participle the form of a verb used after have in the perfect, e.g. They have
arrived. How long has he known?
past perfect a form with had and a past participle, e.g. / had answered the letter
the week before. • 68
past perfect continuous a form with had been and an active participle: I saw that
it had been raining. • 68


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it had been raining. • 68
past simple the past tense without an auxiliary, e.g. it stopped, they left • 65
perfect a verb form with have and a past participle, e.g. The film has started.
• 61(3)
perfect gerund e.g. He denied having taken the money.
perfect infinitive e.g. to have done, to have waited
perfect participle e.g. Having paid the bill, we left.
performative verb When we say I agree to express agreement, we are using a


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performative verb, one which expresses the action it performs. Others are
promise, apologize, suggest, refuse. • 16(3)
person First person relates to the speaker (7, we). Second person relates to the
person spoken to (you). Third person relates to other people and things (he, she,
it, they).
personal pronoun e.g. /, you, he, we • 184
phrasal verb a verb + adverb combination, e.g. get up, look out, turn off
phrase a word or group of words that is part of a clause, e.g. your friend (a noun


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phrase), was asking (a verb phrase) • 4
plural A plural form means more than one. Tree is singular; trees is plural.
positive I'm ready is positive; I'm not ready is negative.
possessive a form expressing the idea of something belonging to someone, or a
similar relationship, e.g. my chair, theirs, whose sister, Diana's job
possessive determiner my, your, his, our etc • 174
possessive pronoun mine, yours, his, ours etc • 174


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predicative the position of an adjective after a linking verb such as be, e.g. The day
was cold.
prefix Minibus has the prefix mini. Unhappy has the prefix un. • 284
preposition a word like on, by, to, with • 223
prepositional object In the sentence We sat on the floor, the noun phrase the floor
is a prepositional object, the object of the preposition on.
prepositional phrase a preposition + noun phrase, e.g. on my way, in the garden,
to you, or a preposition + adverb, e.g. before then.


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prepositional verb a verb + preposition combination, e.g. look at, pay for,
believe in
present continuous a form with the present of be and an active participle, e.g. we
are waiting • 64 GLOSSARY PAGE 402
present perfect a form with the present of have and a past participle, e.g. it has
arrived, we have begun • 65
present perfect continuous a form with the present of have + been + active
participle: she has been working all day • 67


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participle: she has been working all day • 67
present simple the present tense without an auxiliary, e.g. we know, she travels
• 64
pronoun A pronoun is a word that functions like a noun phrase, e.g. you, he,
ourselves, someone. • 183
quantifier a word saying how many or how much, e.g. all, some, half, a lot of,
enough
question a sentence which asks for information • 21
question phrase a phrase with what or how, e.g. what time, how long • 28


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question tag a short question added to the end of a statement, e.g. That was nice,
wasn't it? • 34
question word These words can be used as question words: who, whom, what,
which, whose, where, when, why, how. • 27
reflexive pronoun a pronoun such as myself or themselves referring to the subject,
e.g. David blamed himself for the accident. • 186
regular A regular form is the same as most others; it follows the normal pattern.


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The verb call has a regular past tense called. But the verb sing has an irregular
past tense sang.
relative adverb where, when and why in a relative clause, e.g. the hotel where we
stayed • 279
relative clause a clause that modifies a noun, e.g. the woman who called
yesterday, the car you were driving, people going home from work • 271
relative pronoun a word like who, which, that in a relative clause, e.g. the person
who started the argument


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who started the argument
s-form the form of a verb with s or es added, e.g. The weather looks good.
sentence A sentence can be a statement, question, imperative or exclamation;
• 15. It consists of one or more clauses. A written sentence begins with a capital
letter and ends with a full stop (.) or question mark (?) or exclamation mark (!).
sequence of tenses the use of the same tense in the main clause and sub clause,


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e.g. I'm going to Greece because I like it there. (both present), I realized I had
given the wrong answer. (both past)
short answer a subject + auxiliary used to answer a question, e.g. Who's winning?
~ You are. • 29(4) See also yes/no short answer.
short form Some words can be written in a full form or a short form, e.g. have or
've. In the short form we use an apostrophe in place of part of the word. • 55(2)
simple tenses the present simple or past simple tense without an auxiliary, e.g. it


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opens, it opened
singular A singular form refers to one thing only. Car is singular; cars is plural.
state verb a verb that refers to something staying the same, not an action, e.g. be,
belong, remain, know • 62
statement a sentence which gives information, not a question or request • 16
stress speaking a word or syllable with more force and so making it sound more
important
strong form See weak form.
sibilant the sounds and sub clause See main clause.


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subject In the sentence The ship sails in an hour, the noun phrase the ship is the
subject. In a statement the subject comes before the verb.
subject complement See complement.
subjunctive The subjunctive is the base form of a verb. We can use it in rather
formal English in some contexts, e.g. I propose that the money be made available.
• 242
suffix The adverb calmly has a suffix ly. The noun movement has a suffix ment.
• 285


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• 285
superlative Superlative forms are oldest, most famous, most sharply etc. • 217
syllable The word important has three syllables: important.
tag See question tag.
tag question a sentence with a question tag, e.g. We've got time, haven't we?
tense a form of the verb which shows whether we are talking about the present
(I refuse, he knows, we are) or the past (I refused, he knew, we were) •61(1)
to-infinitive a verb form like to go, to answer, to sleep • 115


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to-infinitive clause See infinitive clause.
transitive verb a verb that takes an object, e.g. We enjoyed the meal. The postman
brings the letters. • 8
truth adverb e.g. definitely, possibly, maybe • 214
uncountable noun a noun that cannot have a/an in front of it and has no plural
form, e.g. gold, petrol, music, • 144. An uncountable noun takes a singular verb.
verb In the sentence The parcel arrived yesterday, the word arrived is a verb. Verbs
are words like play, walk, look, have, discover.


key: chroma:document
string_value:
are words like play, walk, look, have, discover.
verb of perception e.g. see, hear, feel, smell
verb of reporting a verb used to report what someone says or thinks, e.g. say, tell,
answer, promise, think • 265
verb phrase a verb or a group of words that functions as a verb, e.g. opens, went, is
coming, had waited, can swim, must have seen • 57
viewpoint adverbial e.g. economically, weather-wise • 213(3)
vowel The letters a, e, i, o and u are vowels. The other letters, e.g. b, c, d,f, are


key: chroma:document
string_value:
consonants.
weak form Some words can be spoken in a strong form or a weak form. For
example, the word can has a strong form and a weak form .•55(1)
wh-question a question that begins with a question word, e.g. who, what, where
• 24
word class a type of word such as a noun, adjective or preposition • 3
yes/no question a question that can be answered yes or no, e.g. Are you ready?~
Yes, I am. Did anyone call? ~ No. • 24
yes/no short answer an answer such as Yes, it is. or No, they didn't. • 29(2)


key: chroma:document
string_value:
PAGE 403 GLOSSARY
voiced/voiceless These consonant sounds are voiceless:
. These consonant sounds are voiced:
. All vowel sounds are voiced. Index
PAGE 404
The numbers refer to sections, not
pages. For example, 158 means section
158, and 221(3c) means part 3c of
section 221. Numbers in bold type
mean a direct treatment of or main
reference to a topic.
a/an
summary 158
as + adjective + a 221 (3c)
alone hundred 191(1) Note b
leaving out 42(3), 45(2), 45(4)
many a 177(3b)
50 miles an hour 172


key: chroma:document
string_value:
many a 177(3b)
50 miles an hour 172
with possessive 174(5)
quite a, such a 212(4)
a bit (adverb) 212(1a) Note e, f, 212(7c)
+ comparative 212(2)
a bit more/less 212(8f)
a bit of 177(2a)
a bit of a 212(4) Note b
+ gerund 133(1), 138 (2c)
quite a bit of 212(8c)
a few 177(2), 178(7a)
quite a few 2l2(8c)
a great many 177(1b) Note c
a little
adverb 212(1a) Note f, 212(7c)
+ comparative 212(2, 8f)
+ gerund 133(1)
quantifier 177(2), 178(7a)
a lot
+ comparative 212(2, 8f), 221 (8)
degree 212(7c)


key: chroma:document
string_value:
+ comparative 212(2, 8f), 221 (8)
degree 212(7c)
frequency 211(2)
a lot of 177(1), 178(7)
agreement 153(2)
+ gerund 133(1), 138(2c)
quite a lot of 212(8b)
abbreviated clause
with adjective 199(5)
leaving out words 36
patterns with participles 134
participle relative clauses 276
with so/not 43
special styles 45
abbreviations
with a/an 159(2)
capital letters 56(6h)
plural 145(1d)
ability 98
ability
ability at/in 237(2j)
+ to-infinitive 124(1a)
able ending 285(5i)
able
comparison 218(4b)


key: chroma:document
string_value:
able ending 285(5i)
able
comparison 218(4b)
able to 98(2,3)
about 228(1)
after adjective 236(2)
= approximately 191(4)
and around 225(1) Note d
+ gerund 132(2, 3)
after noun 237(2i)
after say/tell 266(1) Note c
after verb 233(3), 234(5)
about to 78(1a),80(3)
above 225(1), 225(3b), 226(2a)
absent from 236(4)
absolutely 212(1a) Note a, 212(7a)
absolutely no 17(6b)
abstract noun
countable/uncountable 144(1b)
linking with previous text 48(3)
+ of 133(2b)
suffixes 285(2)
without the 165
absurd


key: chroma:document
string_value:
suffixes 285(2)
without the 165
absurd
quite absurd 212(5c)
the absurd 204(2a)
accept
+ noun clause 262(1c)
performative 16(3)
verb of reporting 265(2)
accommodation: uncountable 144(4b)
accompany + object 233(4)
according to 228(1)
accusative: see object pronoun
accuse... of 234(2)
+ gerund 132(2)
accustomed to 236(4)
+ gerund 132(6)
ache: simple/continuous 62(6)
across 225(1)
and through, along 226(4)
act and action 87(2)
action verb 62
and linking verb 209(1b)
active and passive
summary 103


key: chroma:document
string_value:
active and passive
summary 103
overview of forms 114
active with passive meaning 113
active participle 134, 135(2)
before noun 137, 283(2) Note
after passive verb 110(2)
in relative clause 276(1)
spelling 64(1) Note a
add
+ noun clause 262(1c)
verb of reporting 265(2)
adding relative clause 274
and identifying clause 272 (4a, 5)
additions (e.g. So do I) 43
adjectival clause: see relative clause PAGE 405 INDEX
adjective
summary 197
and adverb 87(4), 149(2), 209(1), 305(2)


key: chroma:document
string_value:
and adverb 87(4), 149(2), 209(1), 305(2)
same form as adverb 207(3)
with adverb of degree 212
comparison 218
in complex noun phrase 147(7b)
in compound noun 283(1) Note
formed from other words 285(5)
+ gerund 133(1) Note a
in ly 207 (2)
after linking verb 9(1)
nationality word 288(1a)
+ noun clause 262(6)
after number + noun 283(5)
+ preposition 236
+ preposition + gerund 132(4)
after someone etc 189(4)
+ to-infinitive 123
after verb + object 11(1)
adjective phrase 4(3), 199(1)


key: chroma:document
string_value:
adjective phrase 4(3), 199(1)
after noun 148(2)
adjunct: see adverb, adverbial
admire
action/state 62(3)
admire for 234(2)
admit
+ gerund 121(1)
passive pattern 109(1)
performative 16(3)
verb of reporting 265(2), 270(2d, 2g)
admit to 233(2)
admit to + gerund 132(2, 6)
adore: state verb 62(1)
advantage
advantage for with to-infinitive 126(4)
advantage in/of 132(7), 237(2a)
adverb
summary 205
and adjective 87(4), 149(2), 209(1), 305(2)
after be 232(4)
comparison 219
with an infinitive 117(1)


key: chroma:document
string_value:
comparison 219
with an infinitive 117(1)
+ participle 137(2)
in phrasal verb 231
after preposition 224(1)
spelling 207(1) Note
compound in where 189(1c)
adverb clause: see adverbial clause
adverb of degree 212
+ comparative 212(8f), 221(8)
+ preposition 224(3)
adverb of frequency 211
in front position 49(1c)
adverb of manner 209
in front position 49(1c)
adverb particle: see phrasal verb
adverb phrase 4(4), 206(1)
after noun 148(2)
adverbial 5, 205
extra adverbial 12
in front position 49(1)


key: chroma:document
string_value:
extra adverbial 12
in front position 49(1)
and inversion 17(6c)
after linking verb 9(2)
punctuation 56(3a)
after verb + object 11 (2)
adverbial clause 248
adverbial of place 210
in front position 49(1c)
and inversion 49(3)
after a superlative 221(7)
adverbial of time 210
and articles 169
in front position 49(1b)
in indirect speech 267
with present perfect/past simple 65(5)
after a superlative 221(7)
adverbial phrase: see adverbial
advice
conditional 256(2)
I'd advise 16(3)
imperative 19(3)


key: chroma:document
string_value:
I'd advise 16(3)
imperative 19(3)
shall I/we 71(7)
should, ought to 93
advice: uncountable 144(4b)
advisable
+ subjunctive 242(1)
+ to-infinitive 123(1)
advise
+ gerund/to-infinitive 121(1) Note f
+ noun clause 262(lc, 1d)
+ passive clause 112(2c) Note
+ object + to-infinitive 122(2a), 270(2c)
performative 16(3)
verb of reporting 265(2), 270(2c), 270(2h)
advise you what to do 125(2)
affix (prefix, suffix) 284, 285
afford
not reflexive 186(2d)
+ to-infinitive 121(1)
afraid
comparison 218(4b)


key: chroma:document
string_value:
+ to-infinitive 121(1)
afraid
comparison 218(4b)
+ noun clause 262(6a)
afraid of 236(2)
afraid of+ gerund 132(5b) Note e
position 200(2)
afraid so/not 43(3)
+ to-infinitive 123(5), 132(5b) Note e
after
and afterwards 210(5)
conjunction 250(1,2)
+ gerund 132(8a)
in indirect speech 267(2)
order 226(7b)
+ present 77
after that 65(3a), 210(5)
after all 216(2)
against 225(1), 228(1)
+ gerund 132 (8a)
agent in the passive 104(3)
with verb of reporting 109(4)
with to-infinitive 113(2b)
ago 227(5c)


key: chroma:document
string_value:
with to-infinitive 113(2b)
ago 227(5c)
in indirect speech 267(2)
with past 65(3a) Note b
agree
without be 84(5) Note b
+ noun clause 262(1c)
+ passive clause 112(2a) Note
passive patterns 109
performative 16(3)
verb of reporting 265(2), 270(2b, 2g) INDEX
agree to/with 233(2) Note a
+ to-infinitive 121(1), 132(5b) Note a
agree with + gerund 132(2), 132(5b) Note a
agreeing
I agree 16(3)
echo tag 35(2) Note c
short answer 29(2f), 43(4)
agreement + to-infinitive 124(1a)


key: chroma:document
string_value:
agreement + to-infinitive 124(1a)
agreement of subject and verb 150
aid: uncountable 144(4b)
aim
aim at 234(2)
aim at+ gerund 132(2, 5a)
aim of/in + gerund 132(7)
+ to-infinitive 121(1), 132(5a)
ain't 55(2b)Note c
aircraft: plural 297
alarmed, alarming 203
alarmed at/by 236(2)
alike: position 200(2)
alive: position 200(2)
all 178
agreement 153(3)
almost/nearly all 212 (8d)
all of which 274(4)
pronoun 181(1) Note b
all the same 246(2)
allege: passive patterns 109
allow
passive 108(3)


key: chroma:document
string_value:
allege: passive patterns 109
allow
passive 108(3)
+ object + to-infinitive 122(2b) Note a,
127(3a) Note
+ to-infinitive/gerund 121(1) Note f
allowed to 94(3)
almost 212(7a, 8d)
alone
position 200(2)
quite alone 212(5c)
along 225(l), 226(4)
along with 244(3)
already 210(2c)
with past and perfect 65(5a), 303(6)
also 244(1)
and even 213(1) Note
alter: with/without object 8(3)
alternative questions 31
alternative to 237(2c)
alternatively 245(1) Note a
although 246(3)
+ adjective 199(5c)


key: chroma:document
string_value:
although 246(3)
+ adjective 199(5c)
+ participle 139(3)
always 211(1,2)
with continuous 64(2d), 66(2) Note c
am 84(2)
short form 55(2b)
weak form 55(1b)
am (time of day) 195(1) Note a, Note c
amazed
amazed at/by 236(2)
amazed at + gerund 132(4, 5a)
quite amazed 212(5c)
+ to-infinitive 132(5a)
not with very 212(1a) Note a
amazement at 132(7)
amazing
quite amazing 212 (5c)
not with very 212(1a) Note a
ambition + to-infinitive 124(1a)
American English 302
American spelling 308
among 225(1, 3b)


key: chroma:document
string_value:
American spelling 308
among 225(1, 3b)
and between 226(8)
amount
agreement 153(2) Note b
amount of 177(4)
amount to 233(2)
amused 203
comparison 218(4b)
+ noun clause 262 (6a)
+ to-infinitive 123(5)
amusing 203
+ to-infinitive 123(1)
an 159
see also a/an
analysis: irregular plural 298(5)
and
with adjectives 202(2, 3)
agreement 152(1), 152(4)
conditional 259(6c)
taller and taller 221(1)
linking clauses 239(1), 244
linking words and phrases 13
in numbers 304(7)
with pronoun 184(1c)


key: chroma:document
string_value:
in numbers 304(7)
with pronoun 184(1c)
punctuation 56(2)
weak form 55(1)
anger
anger about/at + gerund 132(7)
anger at 237(1) Note a
angry
angry about/at + gerund 132(4,5a)
angry about/at/with 236(2) Note b
+ to-infinitive 123(5), 132(5a)
animal as he/she 184(3b) Note a
announce
+ noun clause 262(1c, 1d)
+ object + to-infinitive 122(2c)
passive pattern 109(1)
annoyance about/at + gerund 132(7)
annoyed 203
annoyed about/at + gerund 132 (4, 5a)
comparison 218(4b)
+ noun clause 262 (6a)


key: chroma:document
string_value:
comparison 218(4b)
+ noun clause 262 (6a)
+ preposition 236(2) Note b
+ to-infinitive 123(5), 132(5a)
annoying 203
another 180(2)
+ number 180(3b)
another one 181(1) Note c
answer
+ noun clause 262(1c)
with/without object 8(2), 233(4)
verb of reporting 265(2)
answer to 237(2f)
verb and noun 287(1)
answering questions 29
anticipate
+ gerund 121(1)
+ noun clause 262(1c) PAGE 407 INDEX
anticipatory it 50(5)
anxiety
anxiety about + gerund 132(7)
with to-infinitive 124(1a), 126(4)
anxious


key: chroma:document
string_value:
with to-infinitive 124(1a), 126(4)
anxious
anxious about/for 236(2) Note d
anxious about +gerund 132(5b) Note f
+ noun clause 262 (6a)
+ subjunctive 242(1)
with to-infinitive 123(5), 126(2),
132(5b)Note f
any 179
agreement 153(5)
+ comparative 212(8f)
in compounds (anyone etc) 179(1f),
189(2)
special use 179(4), 179(5c) Note
after without 228(2) Note
any longer 210 (3b)
any more
adverb 210(3a)
quantifier 180(2c)
anyone/body 189(2)
anything 179(1f), 189(2)
anyway216(2)
anywhere 179(1f), 189(2)


key: chroma:document
string_value:
anyway216(2)
anywhere 179(1f), 189(2)
apart from 228(7)
apologize
apologize for 233(2)
apologize for + gerund 132(2)
performative 16(3)
verb of reporting 265(2), 270 (2a, 2e)
spelling 308
apology
apology for + gerund 132(7), 237(1) Note b
apology to 237(1) Note b
apostrophe
leaving out 146(6) Note
plural ending 145(1d)
possessive form 146(1)
in short forms 55(2)
appalled, appalling
with quite 212(5c)
not with very 212(1a) Note a
appear
action/state 62(3)
it appears 50(5c)
linking verb 9(1)


key: chroma:document
string_value:
it appears 50(5c)
linking verb 9(1)
appear so/not 43(3)
there appeared 50(4)
+ to-infinitive 120(2)
appetite for 237(2g)
applause: uncountable 144(4b)
application for 237(2g)
apply for 233(2)
with to-infinitive 126(1)
appoint: clause pattern 11(1)
apposition 14
agreement 152(4) Note
no article 167(6)
appreciate + gerund 121(1)
approach
+ object 233(4)
not reflexive 186(2d)
approve (of) 233(1) Note b
+ gerund 132(2)
approximately 191(4)
Arabic 288(2a) Note b
are 84(2), 151(1)
short form 55 (2b)


key: chroma:document
string_value:
are 84(2), 151(1)
short form 55 (2b)
weak form 55(1b)
aren't I?
in question 30 (2a) Note
question tag 34(1) Note b
argue
and have an argument 87 (2,4)
+ noun clause 262 (1c)
verb of reporting 265 (2)
argument
have an argument 87(2, 4)
spelling 292(4) Note
arise: there arose 50(4)
arms 154(1b)
army: group noun 156(4)
around 225(1), 306(1)
+ number 191(4)
arrange
arrange for 126(1)
+ noun clause 262(1c)
with to-infinitive 78(3), 121(1), 126(1)
arrangement with to-infinitive 124(2a),
126(4)


key: chroma:document
string_value:
arrangement with to-infinitive 124(2a),
126(4)
arrangements
be to 76(1)
future continuous 75(2)
past 80(1), 80(3) Note a
present continuous 73(1), 74(2)
arrest... for 234 (2)
arrive
arrive at/in 233(2)
there arrived 50(4)
articles 158
see also a/an, the
as
with a/an 212(4)
+ adjective 199(5b), 221(3)
as far/long 210(4b)
conjunction (manner) 253(2)
conjunction (reason) 251(1)
conjunction (time) 250
+ gerund 132(1b)
and like (conjunction) 253(2) Note a
and like (preposition) 228(6)


key: chroma:document
string_value:
and like (preposition) 228(6)
+ participle 139(3) Note a
+ present 77(1)
+ pronoun 221(5)
role (as Chairman) 167(5)
pattern with as/though 246(3) Note
weak form 55(1b)
as a result 247(2)
as a result of + gerund 132(8a)
as far as... concerned 213(3)
as for 184(1e) Note a, 228(1)
as if/as though 241 (3a), 242(3), 253(2)
as long as 259 (4)
as soon as 250(1), 250(5)
+ present 77
as though: see as if/as though
as well (as) 244
agreement 152(4)
+ gerund 132 (8a) INDEX
ashamed
comparison 218(4b)


key: chroma:document
string_value:
ashamed
comparison 218(4b)
ashamed of 236(2)
ashamed of + gerund 132 (5b) Note g
position 200(2)
+ to-infinitive 123(5), 132(5b) Note g
aside from 306(2)
ask
ask about 233(3a) Note a, 262(5) Note
ask for 233(1) Note a, 233(3a) Note a,
234(2)
ask for with to-infinitive 126(1)
+ noun clause 262(1c)
with/without object 8(2)
passive pattern 108(3)
+ preposition 233(3a) Note a
verb of reporting 266
reporting orders 270(1)
+ subjunctive 242(1)
+ to-infinitive 121(1)
ask what to do 125(3)


key: chroma:document
string_value:
+ to-infinitive 121(1)
ask what to do 125(3)
asking for information
indirect question 33
intonation 54 (2b)
negative question 30(1d)
question 22
question tag 34(3)
statement 16(2)
asking permission 94(2)
asleep: position 200(2)
aspects 61 (3,4)
overview 69,114(1)
passive 105(1), 114(1)
assistance: uncountable 144(4b)
association: group noun 156(4)
assume
assume so/not 43(3)
+ noun clause 262 (1c)
+ object + to-infinitive 122(2c)
passive patterns 109
assure with noun clause 265(2,3)


key: chroma:document
string_value:
assure with noun clause 265(2,3)
astonished at/by 236(2)
at
after adjective 236
and in, on (place) 226(1)
and in, on (time) 227(1)
laugh/shout at 233(3c) Note b, c
place 225(1,2b)
time 227 (1a)
weak form 55(1b)
at all 17(6b), 212(1a) Note g
at least 191(4)
at/in the end 229(2b)
athletics 154(2)
attack
attack on 237(2h)
verb and noun 287(1)
attempt: make an attempt 87(2)
+ to-infinitive 121(1), 124(1a)
verb and noun 287(1)
attend to 233(2)
attitude to/towards 237(2h)


key: chroma:document
string_value:
attend to 233(2)
attitude to/towards 237(2h)
attributive adjective 199(2,3) 200(1)
comparison 218(3)
order 202(1, 2)
with quite, so/such, too 212(4)
audience: group noun 156(4)
authorize 122 (2b)
auxiliary verbs 60, 83
followed by adverb 208(4)
in co-ordinate clause 239(1a) Note b
modal auxiliary verbs 90
+ not 17(2)
available
available for/to 236(4)
position 201 (2) Note a
avoid
with gerund 121(1), 131(5)
negative meaning 17(4) Note a,
252(2) Note c
awake: position of adjective 200(2)
award


key: chroma:document
string_value:
awake: position of adjective 200(2)
award
passive pattern 108
with to 10(5)
aware
+ noun clause 262(5) Note, 262(6)
aware of 236(4)
aware of+ gerund 132(4)
awareness of
+ gerund 132(7)
away 232 (4)
away from 225(1)
awful
quite awful 212(5c)
with to-infinitive 123(1), 126(2)
not with very 212(1a) Note a
awfully 212(la, 7c)
back
back of 147 (5f) Note b
in phrasal verb 232(2)
backshift of tenses 268
bad
bad at + gerund 132(4)
comparison 218(2b)
badly: comparison 219(2)
baggage: uncountable 144(4b)


key: chroma:document
string_value:
baggage: uncountable 144(4b)
bar of 144(3b)
bare infinitive 116(1)
patterns 127
after verb + object 140(1b)
barracks 154(3)
base form 58
bath
have a bath 87 (2)
not reflexive 186(2e)
be
+ adverb 232(4)
agreement 151
auxiliary verb 83
continuous 84(3)
form 84(2)
linking verb 9,84
ordinary verb 84
not passive 104(6b)
in questions 23(3)
state verb 62(1)
+ to-infinitive 76,127(4b)
weak form 55(1b)
be able to 98(2, 3) PAGE 409 INDEX
be about to 78(1a)
past 80(3)
be allowed to 94(3)


key: chroma:document
string_value:
be about to 78(1a)
past 80(3)
be allowed to 94(3)
be bound to 78(2) Note, 95(1) Note b
be due to 78(1c)
be dying for/to 121(1) Note c
be going to 72
passive 105(1d)
past 80(1)
and will 74
be likely to 96 Note
be obliged to 92(1a) Note c
be on the point of 78(1b)
past 80(3)
be required to 92(1a) Note c
be set to 78(1b) Note
be sick 305(l) Note
be supposed to 92(3)
be sure to 78(2) Note, 95(1) Note b
be to 76
in if-clause 258(2)
indirect speech 270(1c)
past 80(3)
be used to 100 (2c)


key: chroma:document
string_value:
past 80(3)
be used to 100 (2c)
bear: can't bear 121(2), 122(2d)
because 251
because of 251 (3)
because of + gerund 132 (8a)
become: linking verb 9(1)
bed without the 168
been 84(2)
and gone 84(6), 303(7)
weak form 55(1b)
before
adverb 227 (5d)
conjunction 250(1,2)
+ gerund 132(8a)
in indirect speech 267(2)
order 226(7b)
with perfect 65(2), 68(3c)
preposition of time 227(6c)
with present 77
beg
+ noun clause 262(1c)
verb of reporting 265(2)
with to-infinitive 121(1), 122(2a)
begin


key: chroma:document
string_value:
with to-infinitive 121(1), 122(2a)
begin
+ gerund/to-infinitive 121(2)
with/without object 8(2,3)
behave to/towards 233 (2)
behaviour: uncountable 144(4b)
behind 225(1, 3b), 226(7a)
being 84 (3)
belief
belief in 132(7), 237(2h)
plural 296(2) Note
believe
clause pattern 11(1)
believe in 233(2)
believe in + gerund 132(2)
+ noun clause 262(lb, lc)
passive 104(6b), 109
verb of reporting 265(2)
I believe so 43(3)
state verb 62(1)
+ object + to-infinitive 122(2c)
belong
without be 84(5) Note b


key: chroma:document
string_value:
belong
without be 84(5) Note b
not passive 104(6b)
state verb 62(l,5)
belong to 233(2)
belongings 154(1a)
below
+ number 191(4)
place 225(1), 226(2c)
bend with/without object 8(3)
beneath 225(1) Note c
benefit from 233 (2)
+ gerund 132(2)
beside 225(1)
besides 244(2)
+ gerund 132(8a)
better, best
adjective 218(2b)
adverb 219(2)
hope for the best 204(2b)
with to-infinitive 123(1), 126(2)
between
and among 226(8)
place 225(1)
time 227 (7c)
and with 237(2c)
beyond 225 (1,3b)
billiards 154(2)


key: chroma:document
string_value:
beyond 225 (1,3b)
billiards 154(2)
binoculars 155(4)
births 296(3) Note
bit of 144(3b) Note a, 144(4a)
see also a bit of
black out 232(2)
blame
blame ...for+ gerund 132(3), 270(2f)
blame... for/on 234(3)
performative 16(3)
verb of reporting 265(2), 270(2f)
blessed 301
blind: the blind 204(1b)
blow
blowout 232(2)
blow up 232(2)
board: group noun 156(4)
body and one in compounds 189(1a)
boil with/without object 8(3)
bored
get bored 107(3)
bored with 236(5)
bored with + gerund 132(4)


key: chroma:document
string_value:
bored with 236(5)
bored with + gerund 132(4)
boredom with + gerund 132(7)
boring: comparison 218(4b)
borrow. ..from 234(2)
both 178(4)
both... and 244(4)
bother 121(2) Note f
bottle (verb) 287(3)
bottom of 147(5f) Note b, 226(3)
bound to 78(2) Note, 95(1) Note b
bowls 154(2)
box (verb) 287(3)
brake (verb) 287(3)
brave of with to-infinitive 126(5)
bread: uncountable 144 (4b) INDEX PAGE 410
break
break down 232(2)
with/without object 8(3)
breakup 232 (1b)
brilliant
brilliant at 236(3)


key: chroma:document
string_value:
breakup 232 (1b)
brilliant
brilliant at 236(3)
quite brilliant 212 (5c)
bring
with for/to 10(5)
passive pattern 108(3)
bring up 232(2)
Brit, British 288(2c) Note
British and American English 302
buildings: names and the 171(2h-2j)
bump into 233(2)
burn
burn down 232(2)
burn low 9(1)
with/without object 8(3)
business: countable/uncountable 144(5c)
busy + participle 138(1) Note
but 246
between adjectives 202(2b, 3b)
but (= except) 228(7)
but for 259(4) Note c
+ bare infinitive 127(4a)


key: chroma:document
string_value:
but for 259(4) Note c
+ bare infinitive 127(4a)
butter (verb) 287(3)
buy
with for 10(5)
passive pattern 108(3)
by
agent 104(2, 3), 228(1)
by any means 17 (6b)
by far with comparative 213(3)
+ gerund 132(8a)
by means of+ gerund 132 (8a)
place 225(1), 226(6c)
surprised at/by 236(2)
by the+ measurement 172(3)
by the time 77, 250(1)
by the way 216(2)
time 227 (6c)
and with 228(5)
by yourself 174(6c)
calf, calves 296(2)
call
clause pattern 11(1)
call for/on 233(2) Note b


key: chroma:document
string_value:
clause pattern 11(1)
call for/on 233(2) Note b
call for with to-infinitive 126(1)
call in on 235(2)
verb of reporting 265(2)
verb and noun 287(1)
calm (verb) 287(4)
camping: uncountable 144(4b)
can
ability 98
in conditionals 257 (3b)
in indirect speech 268(3c)
perception 62(7)
permission 94
possibility 97(2)
weak form 55(1b)
cannot/can't
can't bear 121(2), 122(2d)
certainty 95
can't help 121(1), 131(5)
spelling and pronunciation 98(1)
can't stand 121(1) Note a
can't wait 121(1)
see also can


key: chroma:document
string_value:
can't wait 121(1)
see also can
capable of 236(4)
+ gerund 132(4)
capital letters 56(6)
cardinal numbers 191
care
care about/for 233(2) Note c, 265(5) Note
action/state 62(3)
care for + gerund 132(2)
+ to-infinitive 121(1) Note d
verb and noun 287(1)
careful: comparison 218(4b)
careless with to-infinitive 123(1), 126(5)
carpet: countable/uncountable 144(5a)
carry on 232(2)
carry on with 235(2)
case
pronoun 184(1)
possessive form of noun 146
cash: uncountable 144(4b)
catch
catch on 232(1a)


key: chroma:document
string_value:
cash: uncountable 144(4b)
catch
catch on 232(1a)
+ object + participle 140(2)
passive pattern 110(2)
catch up with 235(2)
cattle 156(6)
causative get/have 111
cause
cause of 237(2f)
+ object + to-infinitive 122(2b)
cautious: comparison 218(4b)
cease + gerund/to-infinitive 121(2)
certain
certain about/of + wh-clause 262(5) Note
comparison 218(4b)
+ noun clause 262(6)
certain of 236(4), 262(5) Note
position 200(3)
quite certain 212(5c)
+ to-infinitive 123(6)
certainly 214(1)


key: chroma:document
string_value:
+ to-infinitive 123(6)
certainly 214(1)
with emphatic form 51 (2a) Note
certainty 95
chance (verb)
it chanced 50(5c)
there chanced 50(4)
chance (noun)
chance of 237 (2b)
+ to-infinitive 124(1b)
change
get changed 107(2)
with/without object 8(3)
not reflexive 186(2e)
verb and noun 287(1)
changes in indirect speech 267, 268
characteristic of 236(4)
charge
passive pattern 108(3)
charge... with 132(3), 234(2) PAGE 411 INDEX
chat: have a chat 87(2)
cheap
and cheaply 207 (4)


key: chroma:document
string_value:
chat: have a chat 87(2)
cheap
and cheaply 207 (4)
with to-infinitive 123(1), 126(2)
check
+ noun clause 262 (1c)
check over 232(2)
cheering: uncountable 144(1b)
chief: position of adjective 200(1)
chiefs 296(2) Note
children 298(1)
choice + to-infinitive 124(1a)
choir: group noun 156(4)
choose
with/without object 8(2)
+ to-infinitive 121(1)
choose what to do 125(2)
church without the 168(4)
cinema with the 160(5), 168(4) Note
claim
+ noun clause 262 (1c)
passive patterns 109


key: chroma:document
string_value:
claim
+ noun clause 262 (1c)
passive patterns 109
verb of reporting 265(2)
+ to-infinitive 121(1)
clapping: uncountable 144(4b)
class
group noun 156(4)
with/without the 160(5), 168(4)
classifying
a/an 161, 164(2)
adjective 198(1)
gerund 283(2)
possessive form 146(4b)
relative clause 272(3b), 272(5c)
clause
adverbial clause 248
conditional clause 255
finite and non-finite 59
gerund clause 130, 131(1, 3)
infinitive clause 117
noun clause 260
participle clause 134, 136
relative clause 271


key: chroma:document
string_value:
participle clause 134, 136
relative clause 271
as subject taking singular verb 152(6)
as truth adverbial 214(3)
clause combinations 240
clause of manner 253(2)
clause of place 253(1)
clause of purpose 252
clause of reason 251
with participle 139(4)
clause of time 250
with participle 139(1-3)
clause patterns 7
clause types 239
clean out 232(2)
clear (adjective)
comparison 218(4a)
clear to 236(4)
clear what to do 125(2)
clear (verb)
clear off 232(2)
clear up 232 (2)
cleft sentence 51 (3)


key: chroma:document
string_value:
clear up 232 (2)
cleft sentence 51 (3)
clever with to-infinitive 123(1, 5), 126(5)
cliffs 296 (2) Note
clock time 195(1)
close (verb)
close down 232(2)
with/without object 8(3)
close to 225(1), 226(6)
+ gerund 132(6)
clothes 144(4b) Note e, 154(1a)
club: group noun 156(4)
cod: plural 297
collective noun 156
college
group noun 156(4)
without the 168(4)
collide with 233(2)
colon 56(2c,3e), 56(4)
colour adjective: the red one 188(2b) Note
coloured question (question tag) 34


key: chroma:document
string_value:
coloured question (question tag) 34
combine with/without object 8(3)
come
come across 233(2)
come and... 119(1) Note
with be going to 72(2) Note b
come by 233(1) Note a
+ complement 9(1)
come off 232 (2)
+ participle 138(2a)
there came 50(4)
come to 233(2)
+ to-infinitive 120(2)
come up against 235(2)
come up with 235(2)
comma 56
apposition 14
relative clause 272(3-5)
command
+ noun clause 262(1c)
+ object + to-infinitive 122(2a)
verb of reporting 265(2)
commands: see orders
commence 121(2)


key: chroma:document
string_value:
commands: see orders
commence 121(2)
comment
comment about/on 233(3a) Note b, 237(2i)
verb of reporting 265 (2)
comment adverbial 215
clause 253(3)
in front position 49(1b)
to-infinitive 119(3)
comment tag 34(5)
committee: group noun 156(4)
common
comparison 218(4b)
+ to-infinitive 123(1)
community: group noun 156(4)
company: group noun 156(4)
comparative
of adjectives 218
of adverbs 219
with modifier 212(2)
patterns 221
compare to/with 234(2)
comparison
summary 217


key: chroma:document
string_value:
compare to/with 234(2)
comparison
summary 217
overview of adjectives 218(4d)
see also comparative, superlative INDEX PAGE 412
compel + object + to-infinitive 122(2b)
complain
complain about + gerund 132(2)
and make a complaint 87(2)
+ noun clause 262(1c, 1d)
not reflexive 186(2d)
verb of reporting 265(2), 270 (2e, 2g)
complaint: negative question 30(1b)
complement 5, 9(1), 303(1)
after action verb 9(1) Note b
without article 167(5)
clause 262(2)
in front position 49(2), 152(7)
pronoun 184(1b)


key: chroma:document
string_value:
in front position 49(2), 152(7)
pronoun 184(1b)
subject/object complement 11(1)
complete 212(1a) Note a
completely 212(1a) Note a, 212(7a)
complex noun patterns 147(7)
complex sentence 238
compound noun 283(1)
plural 145(1c)
compound sentence 239(1)
compounds 283
hyphens 56(5)
participles 137(2, 4)
with some, any 179(lf, 4c), 189
concentrate
concentrate on 233(2)
not reflexive 186(2d)
concerned
as far as... concerned 213 (3)
position 201 (2)
+ preposition 236(2) Note e
concession


key: chroma:document
string_value:
+ preposition 236(2) Note e
concession
although etc 246
whoever etc 254
conclude: verb of reporting 265(2)
concord 150
concrete noun: countable/uncountable
144(1b)
conditional clause 255
with any 179(1e)
with participle 139(6)
conditional form: would 99
conduct: uncountable noun 144 (4b)
confess
+ gerund 121(1)
performative 16(3)
verb of reporting 265(2), 270(2e, 2g)
confess to 233 (2)
confess to + gerund 132(2)
confident
+ noun clause 262 (6a)
confident of 236(2)
confirm


key: chroma:document
string_value:
confident of 236(2)
confirm
+ noun clause 262(lc, 1d)
verb of reporting 265(2)
conflict: stress 287(2)
confused 203
confused at/by 236(2)
comparison 218(4b)
get confused 107(3)
confusing 203
+ to-infinitive 123(1)
congratulate
congratulate ...on 132(3), 234(2)
performative 16(3)
congratulations 154 (1a)
conjunction 243, 248
+ participle 139(3)
in clause without verb 199(5c)
connection between/with 237 (2c)
connective relative clause 272(4b), 274(5)
connector: see conjunction
conscious


key: chroma:document
string_value:
connector: see conjunction
conscious
+ noun clause 262(5) Note, 262(6a)
conscious of 236(4), 262(5) Note
consequently 247 (2)
consider
clause pattern 11(1)
+ gerund 121(1)
+ noun clause 262 (1c)
passive patterns 109
verb of reporting 265(2)
+ object + to-infinitive 122(2c) Note
consider what to do 125(2)
considering 251(3) Note c
consist of 233(2)
state verb 62(1, 5)
consonant changes 286
contact clause 273(5)
contain: state verb 62(1)
content
position 200(2)
+ to-infinitive 132(5a)


key: chroma:document
string_value:
content
position 200(2)
+ to-infinitive 132(5a)
content with 236(2)
content with + gerund 132(4, 5a)
contents 154(1b)
contest: stress 287(2)
continue
+ gerund/to-infinitive 121(2)
with/without object 8(3)
verb of reporting 265(2)
continuous 61 (4)
with action/state verb 62
with modal verb 91(4), 95(3), 97(1c)
passive 105(1c), 114(1)
see also present continuous etc
continuous infinitive 116(1)
continuous passive participle 135(4)
in relative clause 276(2) Note
contractions (short forms) 55


key: chroma:document
string_value:
contractions (short forms) 55
contrast: see concession
contrast
contrast between/with 237(2c)
stress 287(2)
control
+ object 233(4)
verb and noun 287(1)
convenient with to-infinitive 123(1), 126(2)
conversation: countable/uncountable
144(5d)
convince: verb of reporting 265(3)
convinced + noun clause 262 (6a)
cook
with for 10(5)
with/without object 8(3)
co-ordinate clause 239(1), 243
cope with 233(2) PAGE 413 INDEX
copula (linking verb) 9
copy
copy down 232(2)
verb and noun 287(1)


key: chroma:document
string_value:
copy
copy down 232(2)
verb and noun 287(1)
corner after at/in/on 226(1c) Note
correct: comparison 218(4b)
cost
action/state 62(3, 4)
not passive 104 (6b)
verb and noun 287(1)
costly 207(2)
could
ability 98
in conditionals 257 (4d, 6b)
in indirect speech 268(3c)
perception 62(7)
permission 94
possibility 97(2, 3) 98(3e)
and was able to 98(3)
weak form 55(1b)
after wish 241 (2b)
could have done 97(3), 98(3d)
in conditionals 257(6b)
after wish 24l(2c)
couldn't
impossibility 98(3e)


key: chroma:document
string_value:
after wish 24l(2c)
couldn't
impossibility 98(3e)
past ability 98(3b)
past certainty 95(5)
council: group noun 156(4)
count on 233(2)
+ gerund 132(2)
countable noun 144
countries
capital letter 56(6d)
with/without the 171 (2a)
countryside
with the 160(5)
uncountable 144 (4b)
couple 191(1) Note i
court without the 168(4)
cowardly 207 (2)
crash
crash into 233(2)
with/without object 8(3)
crazy about 236 (2)
crew: group noun 156(4)
crises: irregular plural 298(5)
criteria 298(2)


key: chroma:document
string_value:
crises: irregular plural 298(5)
criteria 298(2)
criticize... for 234(2)
criticizing
conditional 256(2)
might 97(1d)
negative question 30(1c)
crockery: uncountable 144(4b)
cross out 232(2)
crossroads 154(2)
crowd: group noun 156(4)
crowded with 236(1)
cruel: comparison 218(4b)
cry
cry out 232(2)
verb of reporting 265(2)
curious
curious about 236(2), 262(5) Note
+ noun clause 262(5) Note
curricula 298(2)
customs 154(1b)
cut
cut down 232(2)
cut down on 235(2)
cut off 232(2)
cut up 232(2)


key: chroma:document
string_value:
cut down on 235(2)
cut off 232(2)
cut up 232(2)
cutlery 144(4b)
'd (short form) 55 (2b) Note a
daily 207 (6), 211(4)
damage
countable/uncountable 144(4b) Note a,
154(1b)
damage to 237 (2k)
verb and noun 287(1)
danger in/of + gerund 132(7)
dangerous with to-infinitive 123(1), 126(2)
dangling participle 136(2) Note
dare 101, 303(9)
dark with/without the 169(6)
darts 154(2)
dash 56(2c,3e), 274(2)
dates 195(2)
US 304(8)
dawn with/without the 196(6) Note
day
without article 169(5)


key: chroma:document
string_value:
day
without article 169(5)
without preposition 227(2a) Note b
day with/without the 169(6)
dead
quite dead 212(5c)
the dead 204(1b)
deaf: the deaf 204(1b)
deal: a great deal of 177(4a)
deal in/with 233(2) Note d
deaths 296(3) Note
decide
intention 78(3)
+ noun clause 262 (1c)
with/without object 8(2)
decide on 120(1) Note, 233(2), 262(5) Note
+ passive clause 112(2a) Note
passive patterns 109(1, 3)
patterns 120
verb of reporting 265(2)
and take a decision 87(2)
+ to-infinitive 121(1)


key: chroma:document
string_value:
and take a decision 87(2)
+ to-infinitive 121(1)
decide what to do 125(2)
decimals 193(2)
decision
decision about/on 262(5) Note
+ to-infinitive 124(2a)
decisions with will 71(4), 74(2), 75(2)
declarative (statement) 16
declare
clause pattern 11(1)
+ noun clause 262(lc, 1d)
passive patterns 109
performative 16(3)
verb of reporting 265(2)
+ object + to-infinitive 122(2c) Note b INDEX
decrease
decrease in/of 237(2e)
stress 287(2)
deduction (logical certainty) 95
deep, deeply 207(5)


key: chroma:document
string_value:
deep, deeply 207(5)
deer: plural 297
defective verb: see modal verb
defining relative clause: see identifying
definite article: see the
definitely 214(1)
with emphatic form 51(2a) Note
degree adverb 212
delay
+ gerund 121(1)
delay in/of 237(2e)
verb and noun 287(1)
delexical verbs (empty verbs) 87
delicious with quite 212(5c)
delight: countable/uncountable 144(5e)
delighted
+ noun clause 262(6a)
+ preposition 236(2) Note a
+ to-infinitive 123(5)
not with very 212(1a) Note a
demand


key: chroma:document
string_value:
not with very 212(1a) Note a
demand
demand for 237(1) Note a, 237(2g)
+ noun clause 262(1c)
+ object 233(4)
performative 16(3)
verb of reporting 265(2)
+ subjunctive 242(2)
with to-infinitive 121(1), 124(1a), 126(4)
democracy: countable/uncountable 144(5c)
demonstrate + noun clause 262(lc, 1d)
demonstratives 175
dentist
possessive: the dentist's 146(6)
with the 160(5)
deny
+ gerund 121(1)
negative meaning 17(4) Note a
with object 8(2) Note
passive pattern 108(3)
performative 16(3)


key: chroma:document
string_value:
passive pattern 108(3)
performative 16(3)
verb of reporting 265(2)
denying 29(1) Note a
depend
without be 84(5) Note b
depend on 233(2), 262(5) Note
depend on + gerund 132(2)
state verb 62(1, 5)
dependent clause: see sub clause
dependent on 236(4)
+ gerund 132(4)
depressing 203
+ to-infinitive 123(1)
derivation 282
describing
a/an 161(1)
adjectives 197
deserve
+ gerund 113(1)
state verb 62(1,5)
+ to-infinitive 121(3h)
desirable+ subjunctive 242(1)
desire
desire for 237 (2g)
+ object 233(4)


key: chroma:document
string_value:
desire
desire for 237 (2g)
+ object 233(4)
state verb 62(l,5)
+ to-infinitive 124(1a)
despise: state verb 62(1, 5)
despite 246(4)
+ gerund 132(8a)
deter...from 132(3), 234(2)
determination + to-infinitive 124(1a)
determined
+ noun clause 262(6a)
quite determined 212(5c)
+ to-infinitive 123(5)
determiner 143(2a)
+ countable/uncountable noun 144(2)
demonstrative 175
+ gerund 133
+ name 170(2)
possessive 174
+ quantifier 143(3c)
after quantifier 178(lb, 1c)
detest
+ gerund 121(1)
state verb 62(1)


key: chroma:document
string_value:
detest
+ gerund 121(1)
state verb 62(1)
develop with/without object 8(3)
did 88(2)
emphasis 51(2)
in question 65(1)
did not/didn't 55(2b), 65(1)
didn't need to 92(3c)
die
die down 232(2)
dying 294 (2) Note
be dying for/to 121(1) Note c
difference between 237(2c)
different
+ preposition 221(1) Note, 236(4), 306(5)
+ preposition + gerund 132(4)
quite different 212(5c)
difficult with to-infinitive 123(1), 126(2)
difficulty
with gerund 131(2b), 132(7)
+ preposition 237(2k), 262(5) Note


key: chroma:document
string_value:
+ preposition 237(2k), 262(5) Note
direct and directly 207(4)
direct object 8(2), 10(1)
direct speech 264(1)
punctuation 56(4)
dirty: comparison 218(2b)
disabled: the disabled 204(1b)
disadvantage with to-infinitive 126(4)
disadvantaged: the disadvantaged 204(1b)
disagree
performative 16(3)
disagree with + gerund 132(2)
disagreeing: short answer 29(2f)
disappointed/ing 203
disapprove of + gerund 132(2)
disaster with to-infinitive 126(4)
discount: stress 287(2)
discourage.. .from 132(2), 234(2)


key: chroma:document
string_value:
discourage.. .from 132(2), 234(2)
discover
discover how to 125(2)
+ noun clause 262(1c)
passive patterns 109
+ object + to-infinitive 122(2c) INDEX
discuss
with object 8(2) Note
discuss what to do 125(2)
discussion + preposition 237(1) Note b,
262(5) Note
disgusted/ing with quite 2l2(5c)
disjunct 214-216
dislike
countable noun 144(5e)
+ gerund 121(1)
+ object + gerund 131(5)
state verb 62(1)
dispose of 233(2)
distributives 178
dive: irregular in US 303(11)
divide
divide... into 234(2)


key: chroma:document
string_value:
divide
divide... into 234(2)
with/without object 8(3)
divorce: get divorced 107(2)
do
do... about 234(2)
auxiliary verb 51(2), 64(1), 83
do away with 235(2)
emphasis 51(2)
emphatic imperative 19(1), 303(1)
with gerund 138(2)
do let's 19(6a), 303(3)
and make 89
ordinary verb 88
replacing verb 38(2c), 303(2)
do the same 43(5b)
do so/it/that 43(2)
do the shopping 138(2)
weak form 55(1b)
do without 233(2)
doctor with the 160(5)
does 88(2), 300 Note c
see also do
doesn't/does not 55(2b), 64(1)


key: chroma:document
string_value:
see also do
doesn't/does not 55(2b), 64(1)
dominoes 154(2)
don't/do not55(2b), 64(1)
don't have to 92(3a)
don't let's 19(6a), 303(3)
don't think 262(1b)
don't you think (tag) 34(1) Note e
double 194(2)
double negative 17(5)
doubling of consonants 293
US 308(4, 5)
doubt
countable/uncountable noun 144(5e)
+ noun clause 262(1c)
verb of reporting 265(2)
state verb 62(1)
verb and noun 287(1)
dove (past of dive) 303(1)
down
in phrasal verb 232(lc, 2)
preposition 225(1)
dozen 191(1) Note i


key: chroma:document
string_value:
preposition 225(1)
dozen 191(1) Note i
draughts 154(2)
draw
with/without object 8(2)
draw up 232(3)
drawing: countable/uncountable 144(5d)
dread
+ gerund/to-infinitive 121(3c)
+ object + gerund 131(5)
dreadful
quite dreadful 212(5c)
+ to-infinitive 123(1)
not with very 212(1a) Note a
dream
irregular verb 300, 303(11)
+ noun clause 262(1c)
dress
countable/uncountable noun 144(5c)
get dressed 107(2)
non-reflexive verb 186(2e)
drily 294(l) Note b
drink
drink up 232(2)
verb and noun 87(2), 287(1)


key: chroma:document
string_value:
drink
drink up 232(2)
verb and noun 87(2), 287(1)
drive
clause patterns 8(2, 3), 11(1)
+ object + to-infinitive 122(2b)
verb and noun 287(1)
drop of 144(3b)
drop in on 235(2)
drunk: get drunk 107(3)
drunken 301
dry
adjective and verb 287(4)
with/without object 8(3)
not reflexive 186(2e) Note b
dryly 294(1) Note b
due to
future 78(1c)
+ passive 113(2b) Note
reason 251(3)
duly 292(4) Note
dummy subject: see empty subject
during 227(4)
dusk with/without the 169(6) Note
duty: see obligation
dying


key: chroma:document
string_value:
duty: see obligation
dying
dying for/of 233(2) Note e
be dying for/to 121(1) Note c
spelling 294(2) Note
dynamic verb: see action verb
each 178(5), 181(2)
agreement 153(3), 157
each ...the other 186(4c)
each other 186(4)
eager
comparison 218(4b)
eager for 236(2)
+ noun clause 262(6a)
+ subjunctive 242(1)
with to-infinitive 123(5), 126(2)
eagerness + to-infinitive 124(1a)
earlier
adverb 219(1)
indirect speech 267(2)
with past simple 65(3a)
early: adjective and adverb 207(3)
earnings 154(1a)


key: chroma:document
string_value:
earnings 154(1a)
earth: on earth for emphasis 26(6c) INDEX PAGE 416
easily + superlative 212 (3)
easy
comparison 218(4b)
with to-infinitive 123(1), 126(2)
eat
and have a meal 87(2)
with/without object 8(2)
eat up 232(2)
echo question 35(1)
echo tag 35(2)
echoes 290(2)
economics 154(2)
ed-adjectives 203
ed-form: see past form
ed-participle: see past participle,
passive participle
education: countable/uncountable
144(4b) Note b
effect
effect of + gerund 132(7)
effect on 237 (2d), 262(5) Note


key: chroma:document
string_value:
effect on 237 (2d), 262(5) Note
effort with to-infinitive 124(1b)
either
in short additions 43(1a)
adverb 43(1a), 244(1)
agreement 153(5)
and any 179 (4b)
either... or 245(1)
quantifier 178(4)
elder, eldest 218(5b)
position 200(1)
elderly: the elderly 204(1b)
elect: clause pattern 11(1)
ellipsis: see leaving out words
else
or else 245(1) Note b
after question word 26(6b)
after someone etc 189(4)
embarrassing + to-infinitive 123(1)
emerge: there emerged 50(4)
emphasis 51
overview 51 (5)


key: chroma:document
string_value:
emphasis 51
overview 51 (5)
ever 211(1) Note c
imperative 19(1)
negative 17(6)
repeating words 37(2)
emphatic pronouns 186(1, 3)
emphatic stress 51(1)
on the 159(2) Note b, 170(2) Note a
emphatic verb 51 (2)
empty
adjective and verb 287(4)
comparison 218(4b)
quite empty 212(5c)
empty object 50(5b), 122(2d) Note c
empty subject
it 50(5), 109, 118(1), 131(1, 2), 262(4)
and passive 104(4)
there 50(1-4), 131(2)
empty verb 87
enable + object + to-infinitive 122(2b)


key: chroma:document
string_value:
enable + object + to-infinitive 122(2b)
encourage + object + to-infinitive 122(2a)
end: with/without object 8(3)
end of 147(5f) Note b
end position 208(5)
endings 6(1)
summary 289
enemy: group noun 156(4)
engaged
get engaged 107 (2)
engaged to 236(4)
enjoy
action verb 62(4) Note b
with gerund 121(1), 131(5)
enough
adverb 212(1b)
far/long enough 210 (4b)
quantifier 180(1)
with to-infinitive 123(4), 126(3)
enquire 265(2), 269(1)
enter
with/without object 8(2), 233(4)
there entered 50(4)


key: chroma:document
string_value:
there entered 50(4)
enthusiastic about 236(2)
entirely 212 (1a)
envious of 236(2)
envy: state verb 62(1)
equipment: uncountable 144 (4b)
er ending for people 285 (3a)
escape + gerund 121(1)
especially 213(1)
ess female ending 285 (3e)
essential
+ subjunctive 242(1)
with to-infinitive 123(1), 126(2)
not with very 212(1a) Note a
establish: passive pattern 109(1)
establishment with the 160(5)
estimate
+ noun clause 262 (1c)
passive patterns 109
+ object + to-infinitive 122(2c)
even 213(l,2)


key: chroma:document
string_value:
+ object + to-infinitive 122(2c)
even 213(l,2)
even if 259(8)
even so 246(2)
even though 246(3)
ever 211(i) Note c
with present perfect/past 65(5b), 303(6)
after superlative 221(7)
whoever etc 26(6c), 254,281
every 178(5)
agreement 153(3), 157
and all, whole 178(3) Note a
almost every 212 (8d)
and each 178(5)
every bit as 221(8)
every day 211(3), 227(2)
+ noun 181(2)
every one and everyone 189(1a) Note a
every time (conjunction) 250(4b)
everybody 189(1a)
agreement 189(5)
everyone 189(1a)


key: chroma:document
string_value:
agreement 189(5)
everyone 189(1a)
agreement 189(5)
everyplace 305(3)
everything 189(1b)
everywhere 189(1c)
conjunction 253(1)
evidence: uncountable 144(4b)
exact: comparison 218(4b)
example of 237(1) PAGE 417 INDEX
exceed: comparative meaning 221(1) Note
except
+ bare infinitive 127(4a)
preposition 228(7), 306(2)
except (that) 253(5)
exchange... for 234(2)
excited 203
get excited 107(3)
excited about/at 132(4), 236(2)
excitement about/at + gerund 137(2)
exciting 203
+ to-infinitive 123(1)


key: chroma:document
string_value:
exciting 203
+ to-infinitive 123(1)
exclamation 20
indirect 262(6b)
exclamation mark 56(1)
excuse
excuse. ..for/from 132(3), 234(2) Note
with gerund 121(1), 131(5), 132(3)
exhausted/ing with quite212(5c)
exist
not passive 104(6b)
state verb 62(1)
there exists 50(4)
expect
action/state 62(3)
+ noun clause 262(lb, lc)
+ object 233(4)
passive patterns 109
verb of reporting 265(2)
expect so 43(3)
with to-infinitive 121(1), 122(2c)
+ will 74(1), 77(3)
expensive with to-infinitive 123(1), 126(2)


key: chroma:document
string_value:
expensive with to-infinitive 123(1), 126(2)
expense in/of + gerund 132(7)
experience
countable/uncountable 144(5c)
+ gerund 131(2a)
experience in/of 237(2j)
verb and noun 287(1)
expert + preposition 237(2j), 262(5) Note
explain
and give an explanation 87(2)
+ noun clause 262(lc, 1d)
passive pattern 109(1)
explain what to do 125(2)
export: stress 287(2)
extra adverbials 12
extraordinary with quite 212(5c)
extremely 212 (1a)
face
+ gerund 121(1)
face up to 132(6), 235(2)
fact+ clause 262(7)
fail


key: chroma:document
string_value:
fact+ clause 262(7)
fail
negative meaning 17(4) Note a
with/without object 8(2)
+ to-infinitive 121(1)
failure + to-infinitive 124(1a)
fairly 212(1a), 212(5c) Note a
and fair 207 (4)
fall
with adverb 232(1c)
+ complement 9(1)
fall back on 235(2)
fall down on 235(1)
fall for 233 (2)
verb and noun 287(1)
false
quite false 212(5c)
not with very212(1a) Note a
family: group noun 156(4)
famous
comparison 218(4b)
famous for 132(4), 236(4)
fancy + gerund 121(1)
far 210(4)
as far as 227(6a) Note d


key: chroma:document
string_value:
far 210(4)
as far as 227(6a) Note d
comparison 218(2b), 219(2)
far from 17(6b)
far too 212(1a) Note i, 212(8) Note
farther, farthest 218(2b), 219(2)
and further, furthest 218(5a)
fascinated/ing 203
with quite 212(5c)
not with very212(la.) Note a
fashion 207(2)
fast: adjective and adverb 207(3)
favourite 221(1) Note
fear (noun)
countable 144(5e)
fear of + gerund 132(7)
fear (verb)
+ noun clause 262(1)
passive pattern 109(1)
fed up with 236(2)
+ gerund 132(4)
feeble: comparison 218(4b)
feel


key: chroma:document
string_value:
+ gerund 132(4)
feeble: comparison 218(4b)
feel
simple/continuous 62(6)
felt/could feel 62(7)
feel it happen/happening 140(1)
feel like 132(2), 233(2)
linking verb 9(1)
+ noun clause 262(1c)
passive patterns 109
not reflexive 186 (2e)
verb of reporting 265(2)
+ object + to-infinitive 122(2c)
feel up to 235(2)
feelings
be 84(5)
simple tense 64(2b), 66(2c)
feet 296(1)
female endings 285 (3e)
fetch with for 10(5)
few 177(2, 3)
and a few 177(2)
negative word 17(4)
very/so/too few 212(8a)


key: chroma:document
string_value:
negative word 17(4)
very/so/too few 212(8a)
fewer, fewest 220
fill out 232(2)
find
clause pattern 10(5), 11(1)
+ noun clause 262(1c)
+ object + to-infinitive 122(2c)
find out 232(lb, 2)
find out how to 125(2)
passive patterns 108(3), 109, 110(2)
fine: position of adjective 200(2), 305(1) INDEX
fine (verb): fine. ..for 234(2)
finish
+ gerund 121(1)
with/without object 8(3)
finite clause 239(3a)
finite verb 59
firm: group noun 156(4)
first
and firstly 207 (4) Note c, 216(4)
ordinal number 192


key: chroma:document
string_value:
ordinal number 192
fit (adjective): fit for 236(4)
fit (verb)
action/state 62(3)
fit in with 235(2)
irregular in US 303(11)
passive 104 (6b)
fix up 232(1b)
fly with/ without object 8(3)
focus adverbials 213(1, 2)
follow: there follows 50(4)
following
in indirect speech 267(2)
in phrase of time 169(8), 227(2b)
fond of 236(1)
+ gerund 132(4)
foolish
comparison 218(4b)
with to-infinitive 123(1), 126(5)
foot, feet 296(1), 297 Note
for
after adjective 236
= because 251(1) Note e
for example 216(2)


key: chroma:document
string_value:
= because 251(1) Note e
for example 216(2)
+ gerund 132(8a), 252(3)
= in favour of 228(1)
for doing and to do 132(5)
leave/make for 233(4) Note b
need for 237 (2g)
with present perfect/past 65(5d)
purpose 126(6), 252(3)
for the sake of 228(1)
and since 227 (5)
and to 10(5)
with to-infinitive 126
weak form 55(1b)
forbid
performative 16(3)
verb of reporting 265(2)
+ object + to-infinitive 122 (2b)
force
and make 127(3a)
+ object + to-infinitive 122(2b)
forecast
+ noun clause 262(1c)


key: chroma:document
string_value:
forecast
+ noun clause 262(1c)
verb of reporting 265 (2)
foreign plurals 298(2-5)
forget
clause pattern 11(2) Note a
+ object + gerund 131(5)
+ noun clause 262 (1c)
+ to-infinitive/gerund 121 (3a)
forget what to do 125(2)
forgive: performative 16(3)
formal: comparison 218(4b)
formation of words 282
former: position 200(1)
formulae/formulas 298 (4)
fortunate + to-infinitive 123(5)
fraction 193(1)
adverb of degree 212(1a)
agreement 153(2) Note c
free
comparison 218(4a)
and freely 207 (5)


key: chroma:document
string_value:
free
comparison 218(4a)
and freely 207 (5)
freeze with/without object 8(3)
frequency adverb: see adverb of frequency
frequent: comparison 218(4b)
friendly 207(2)
frightened of 236(2)
from
place 225(1, 3b)
from ... point of view213(3)
time 227(7)
weak form 55(1b)
front position 208(3)
for emphasis 49, 231(6)
fruit: uncountable 144(4b)
full of 236(4)
full stop 56(1)
fully 293(4)
fun
+ gerund 131(2)
uncountable 144(4b)
funny: comparison 218(4b)
furious + preposition 236(2) Note b


key: chroma:document
string_value:
furious + preposition 236(2) Note b
furniture: uncountable 144(4a)
further, furthest 218(2b), 219(2)
and farther, farthest 218(5a)
further(more) 244(2)
future 70
overview 81
future continuous 75
future perfect 79
future perfect continuous 79 Note c
future progressive 79
gang: group noun 156(4)
garage (verb) 287(3)
gaze up at 235(1)
gender 6(1)
ess ending 285 (3e)
he/she/it 184(3b)
generalizations
all, most 178(2a)
articles 162, 164(2), 165
overview of articles 166
the+ adjective 204


key: chroma:document
string_value:
overview of articles 166
the+ adjective 204
generally 211(1, 2)
generous with to-infinitive 123(1), 126(5)
genitive: see possessive form of nouns
gentle: comparison 218(4b)
geographical names and the 171
gerund
summary 128
after do 138(2)
after need etc 113(1)
+ noun 283(2)
noun + gerund 283(3)
passive 112, 114(3) INDEX
after phrasal/prepositional verb
231 (4a) Note b
spelling 129(2) Note a
and to-infinitive after verb 121
gerund clause 130, 131(1, 3)
get
+ adjective 107(3)
get away with 235(2)


key: chroma:document
string_value:
get
+ adjective 107(3)
get away with 235(2)
get back 232(2)
get by 232(2)
clause patterns 9(1), 10(5), 11
get it done 111 (2)
get you doing it 140(2)
linking verb 9(1), 107(3)
get on with 132(2), 235(2)
get over 232(2)
forming passive 107(1), 112(1) Note
get round to 235(2)
gerto233(l)Note a
+ to-infinitive 121(1)
get up 186 (2d), 232(3)
get you to do it 111(1), 122(2b) Note c
get washed 107(2)
give 10
passive pattern 108
give out 232(2)
give up 121(1), 232(1a)
give way to 234(4)
glad


key: chroma:document
string_value:
give up 121(1), 232(1a)
give way to 234(4)
glad
+ noun clause 262 (6a)
position 200(2)
+ to-infinitive 123(5)
glass: countable/uncountable 144(5c)
glasses 155(4)
glue (verb) 287(3)
go
go along with 235(2)
go and... 119(1) Note
go away 232(1b)
go back on 235(2)
with be going to 72(2) Note b
go down with 235(2)
go for a walk 87
go in for 235(2)
and journey 87 (2)
linking verb 9
go on 232(2)
go on + gerund/to-infinitive 121(3g)
go on with 235(2)
go over 232(2)
go shopping 138(2)
go with 233(2)


key: chroma:document
string_value:
go over 232(2)
go shopping 138(2)
go with 233(2)
go without 233(2)
going to: see be going to
gone and been 84(6), 303(7)
good
good at 132(4), 236(3)
comparison 218(4b)
no good + gerund 131 (2a)
good of you 126(5)
+ preposition 236(3)
with to-infinitive 123(1), 126(5)
and well 207(7)
good wishes: imperative 19(3), 19(4b)
goods 154 (1a)
goose, geese 296(1)
gossip: uncountable noun 144(4b)
got
have got 85
have got to 92(2)
gotten 303(5d)
government: group noun 156(4)


key: chroma:document
string_value:
gotten 303(5d)
government: group noun 156(4)
gradable adjectives with quite 212(5c)
grain o/144(3b)
grant
passive pattern 108(3)
with to 10(5)
grateful
grateful for + gerund 132(4, 5a)
grateful for/to 236(2) Note f
+ to-infinitive 123(5), 132(5a)
gratitude for + gerund 132(7)
great
a great deal of 177 (4a)
+ to-infinitive 123(1)
groan: verb of reporting 265(2)
group noun 156
US 304(1)
grow
linking verb 9(1)
+ to-infinitive 120(2)
growl: verb of reporting 265(2)
grumble: verb of reporting 265(2)


key: chroma:document
string_value:
grumble: verb of reporting 265(2)
guarantee
+ noun clause 262(1c)
performative 16(3)
verb of reporting 265 (2)
+ to-infinitive 121(1)
guess
have/make a guess 87(2)
+ noun clause 262(1c)
guess so/not 43 (3)
guilty of 236(4)
+ gerund 132(4)
gun (verb) 287(3)
gymnastics 154(2)
h after a/an 159(2) Note a
habits
simple tenses 64(2c), 65(3b)
will, would, used to 100
had 85 (2)
inversion 258(3)
short form 55 (2b)
weak form 55(1b)
had better 93(2)
in indirect speech 268 (3c)
had have done 257(6a) Note


key: chroma:document
string_value:
had have done 257(6a) Note
had to 92(1c, 2b)
certainty 95(5)
indirect speech 268(3d), 270(1c)
and must have done 95(3)
hair: countable/uncountable 144(5c)
half 193(1a)
adverb 212(1a)
half (of) 178(2b)
one and a half 193(1c)
half past 195(1)
halves 296(2)
hammer (verb) 287(3)
PAGE 419 INDEX
hand
passive pattern 108(3}
hand out 232(2)
with to 10(5}
handful 177 (4b)
handicapped: the handicapped 204(1b)
handsome: comparison 218(4b)
hang
hang on 232(2)
with/without object 8(3)


key: chroma:document
string_value:
hang
hang on 232(2)
with/without object 8(3)
hanging participle 136(2) Note
happen
in if-clause 258(1) Note
it happened + clause 50(5c)
there happened to 50(4) Note
happen to 233 (2)
+ to-infinitive 50(4) Note, 120(2),
258(1) Note
happy
comparison 218(4b)
+ noun clause 262 (6a)
+ preposition 236(2) Note a
+ preposition + gerund 132(4),
135(5b) Note d
+ to-infinitive 123(5), 135(5b) Note d
hard
and hardly 207(5)
+ to-infinitive 123(1)
harden with/without object 8(3)
hardly 207(5), 212(7a)


key: chroma:document
string_value:
hardly 207(5), 212(7a)
hardly any 212(8e)
negative word 17(4)
hardly... when 250(5)
harm: uncountable 144(4b)
harmful to 236(4)
has 85(2a)
short form 55 (2b)
weak form 55(1b)
hasten + to-infinitive 121(1)
hate
+ gerund/to-infinitive 121(2) Note a
+ object + gerund 131(5)
state verb 62(1)
+ object + to-infinitive 122(2d)
have
action/state 62(3)
auxiliary verb 83
have you do it 111 (1)
have it done 111 (2)
empty verb 87
have it happen to you 111 (3)
have it happening to you 140(2) Note c


key: chroma:document
string_value:
have it happening to you 140(2) Note c
have you doing it 140(2)
have on 232(2)
ordinary verb 86
not passive 104(6b)
possession 85
short form 55(2b)
US 303(5)
weak form 55(1b)
have got 85
US 303(5)
have got to 92(2)
see also have to
have to
certainty 95(1) Note a
have to do if and have it to do
124(2) Note b
and must 92(1)
passive 106(1)
US 303 (5c)
he 184(1), 184(3)
+ relative clause 272(2) Note
with short form 55(2b)
weak form 55(1b)
he/she 184(5) Note b
headlines


key: chroma:document
string_value:
weak form 55(1b)
he/she 184(5) Note b
headlines
words left out 45(2), 76(1) Note
present simple 64(2e) Note c
headquarters 154(3)
health: uncountable 144(4b)
heaps of 177(4a)
hear
could hear 62(7)
hear you do/doing 140(1)
+ noun clause 262(1c)
with/without object 8(2)
+ preposition 233 (3b)
verb of reporting 265(2)
heavy: comparison 218(4b)
help
can't help with gerund 121(1), 131(5)
+ infinitive 121(1) Note e, 122(2b) Note e
with/without object 8(2)
uncountable noun 144(4b)
verb and noun 287(1)


key: chroma:document
string_value:
uncountable noun 144(4b)
verb and noun 287(1)
helpful
comparison 218(4b)
with to-infinitive 123(1), 126(5)
helping verb: see auxiliary verb
helpless: comparison 218(4b)
her
personal pronoun 184(1, 3)
possessive 174(3)
weak form 55(1b)
here44(5), 175(4a)
front position 49(3b)
here's 55(2b)
heroes 290(2)
hers 174(3)
herself 186
hesitate + to-infinitive 121(1)
high, highly 207(5)
him 184(1)
weak form 55(1b)
himself 186
his 173(4)
weak form 55(1b)
hit: verb and noun 287(1)
hold
clause pattern 11(1)


key: chroma:document
string_value:
hold
clause pattern 11(1)
hold on 232(2)
hold on to 235(1)
hold up 232 (1b)
home without article 168(4)
homeless: the homeless 204(1b)
homework: uncountable 144(4b)
honest with to-infinitive 126(5) PAGE 421 INDEX
hope (noun)
countable/uncountable 144(5e)
hope for/of 237(2g) Note
hope (verb)
continuous 63(4)
hopefor233(2)
+ noun clause 262(1c)
passive pattern 109(1)
+ present/future 77(3) Note
hope so/not 43(3)
+ to-infinitive 121(1)
hopeful: comparison 218(4b)
hopeless at 236(3)
horrible


key: chroma:document
string_value:
hopeless at 236(3)
horrible
quite horrible 212(5c)
+ to-infinitive 123(1)
not with very 2l2(1a) Note a
horrified
+ noun clause 262(6a)
+ to-infinitive 123(5)
hospital with/without article 168(4), 304(4)
hotel: pronunciation 159(2) Note a
hourly 207(6)
houses: pronunciation 296(4)
housework: uncountable 144(4b)
housing: uncountable 144(4b)
hovercraft: plural 297
how
how about 28(2), 132(8a)
how come 28(3) Note
conjunction 253(2)
in exclamation 20(1)
and what... like 26(4) Note


key: chroma:document
string_value:
in exclamation 20(1)
and what... like 26(4) Note
how long and since when 25(3) Note b
how many/much 28(3), 177(1)
in question phrase 28(3)
question word 26(4), 27
how's 55(2b)
however
= but 246(2)
= no matter how 254(1)
in emphatic question 26(6c)
hundred 191(1), 304(7)
hundreds of 191(3)
hungry
comparison 218(4b)
the hungry 204(1b)
hurry: not reflexive 186(2d)
hurt
with/without object 8(3)
simple/continuous 62(6)
hyphen 56(5)
hypotheses 298(5)
I 184(1)
leaving out 42(1), 45(4)


key: chroma:document
string_value:
I 184(1)
leaving out 42(1), 45(4)
with short form 55 (2b)
i and y: spelling 294
ice: countable/uncountable 144(5c)
idea
+ noun clause 262(7)
idea of+ gerund 132(7)
with to-infinitive 126(4)
idea what to do 125(2)
ideal: not with very 212(1a) Note a
identifying relative clause 272(3a, 5)
pronouns 273
idioms
adjective after noun 201 (2) Note c
the+ adjective 204(2b)
without article 167(3, 7)
with as... as 221 (3a) Note a
uses of be 84(5)
verb + complement 9(1)
do and make 89
with get 107(2)


key: chroma:document
string_value:
do and make 89
with get 107(2)
participle clause 139(7)
phrasal verb 232
with possessive 174(7)
prepositional phrase 229
prepositional verb 233-235
prepositions in US 306(4)
if: see also conditional clause
+ adjective 199(5c)
if ever 211(l) Note c
if I were you 242(3)
and in case 259(7)
in noun clause 33, 261(1), 262(3) Note
if only 241 (2d)
+participle 139(3)
+ present 77, 257(2, 3)
in reported question 269(1b)
if so/not 43 (3e)
and when 259(1)
if-clause 255
see also conditional clause
ill


key: chroma:document
string_value:
if-clause 255
see also conditional clause
ill
comparison 218(2b) Note a
position 200(2), 305(1)
imagine
action/state 62(3)
+ gerund 121(1)
+ object + gerund 131(5)
+ noun clause 262 (lb, lc)
+ past 241 (3)
verb of reporting 265 (2)
imagine so 43(3)
+ object + to-infinitive 122(2c)
immediately
conjunction 250(5), 307(3)
indirect speech 267(2)
impatient
+ noun clause 262 (6a)
+ to-infinitive 123(5)
imperative 19
with be 84 (3) Note
in conditionals 257 (3b)
leaving out 42(4)
impersonal expressions


key: chroma:document
string_value:
leaving out 42(4)
impersonal expressions
it: see empty subject
you, one, they 185
imply + noun clause 262(lc, 1d)
import: stress 287(2)
important
+subjunctive 242(1)
with to-infinitive 123(1), 126(2)
impossibility: can't 97(2f) INDEX
impossible
quite impossible 212(5c)
+ to-infinitive 123(1), 123(2) Note
not with very212(1a) Note a
impressed by/with 236(2)
improve with/without object 8(3)
in
and at, on 226(1), 227(1)
be in 232(4)
in a... fashion/manner/way 207(2)
+ gerund 132(8a) Note b


key: chroma:document
string_value:
+ gerund 132(8a) Note b
place 225(1, 2c)
time 227(1, 3), 227(5b) Note c
with transport 228(5b)
in addition (to) 132(6, 8a), 244(2,3)
in/at the end 229(2b)
incase 259(2)
in case of 259(4) Note c
US 307(2)
in charge of 228(1)
in conclusion 216(2)
in consequence 247(2)
in favour of 228(1)
+ gerund 132(8a)
in front of 225(1), 226(7)
in/on the way 229(2c)
in order
in order that 252(2)
in order to 252(1)
in other words 216(2)
in pen 228 (5a) Note b
in so far as 253(4)
in spite of 132(8a), 246(2)


key: chroma:document
string_value:
in so far as 253(4)
in spite of 132(8a), 246(2)
in that 253(4)
in that case 259(4) Note b
in time 229 (2a)
in view of 228(4), 251(3)
inclusive 306(3)
incomplete sentences: see leaving out
words
increase
increase in/of 237(2e)
with/without object 8(3)
stress 287(2)
incredible
quite incredible 212(5c)
+ to-infinitive 123(1)
not with very 212(1a) Note a
indeed 51 (2a) Note
with very 212(1a) Note b
indefinite article: see a/an
indefinite pronoun 189
indicate + noun clause 262(lc, 1d)


key: chroma:document
string_value:
indicate + noun clause 262(lc, 1d)
indirect object 10
in the passive 108
before tell, inform etc 262(1d), 266
before to-infinitive 122(2a)
indirect question 33, 269
indirect speech 263
indoor: position 200(1)
inferior to 236(4)
infinitive
summary 115
and gerund after verb 121
see also to-infinitive, bare infinitive
infinitive clause 117
infinitive relative clause 277
inflections: see endings
influence
+ object 233(4)
influence on/over 237(2d), 262(5) Note
inform
with about/of 234(5a)


key: chroma:document
string_value:
inform
with about/of 234(5a)
with about + gerund 132(3)
+ indirect object 265(3)
performative 16(3)
verb of reporting 265(2)
information 46
and intonation 54(2a)
passive 104(2)
information: uncountable 144(4a)
ing-form 58
adjective 203
spelling 64(1) Note a
with subject there 50(2h)
see also gerund, participle
injured: the injured 204(1b) Note a
inner: position 200(1)
inquire
+ noun clause 262(5) Note
verb of reporting 265(2), 269(1)
inquiry + noun clause 262(5) Note
inside
place 225(1)


key: chroma:document
string_value:
inside
place 225(1)
time 227(3) Note b
insist
+ noun clause 262(1c)
insist on 233(2)
insist on + gerund 132(2), 270(2e)
performative 16(3)
verb of reporting 265(2), 270(2a, 2g),
270(2e)
+ subjunctive 242(1)
insistence on + gerund 132(7)
instead of 228(1)
+ gerund 132(8a)
negative meaning 17(3) Note a
institution without the 168, 304(4)
names 171(8-10)
instruct
+ object + to-infinitive 122(2a)
verb of reporting 265(2)
instructions
conjunction + participle 139(3)
imperative 19(3)


key: chroma:document
string_value:
conjunction + participle 139(3)
imperative 19(3)
reported 125(2) Note
word left out 45(3)
insult: stress 287(2)
insure... against 234(2)
intelligent with to-infinitive 123(1), 126(5)
intend 78(3)
+ finite clause 122(2b) Note a
+ gerund/to-infinitive 121(2)
passive 104 (6b), 109
state verb 62(1)
+ object + to-infinitive 122(2b)
intensifier: see adverb of degree
intention 78(3)
be going to 72(2), 74(2)
- past 80(1) PAGE 423 INDEX
intention + to -infinitive 124(1a)
interest
echo tag 35(2)


key: chroma:document
string_value:
interest
echo tag 35(2)
intonation 54(2c)
interest
interest in 237(1) Note a
interest in + gerund 132(7)
verb and noun 287(1)
interested 203
get interested 107(3)
interested in 236(2)
interested in + gerund 132(4),
132(5b) Note c
interested in + noun clause 262(5) Note
+ to-infinitive 123(5), 132(5b) Note c
interesting 203
+ to-infinitive 123(1)
interfere with 233(2)
interrogative: see question
interrogative pronoun: see question word
interview + preposition 237(2i)


key: chroma:document
string_value:
interview + preposition 237(2i)
into 225(1), 225(3b), 228(5b) Note
and in 225 (2c)
intonation 54(2)
echo question/tag 35
question without inversion 32
question with or 31(1)
question tag 34(3)
intransitive verb 8
not passive 104(6a)
introductory it: see empty subject it
inversion
overview 49(4)
phrasal verb 231 (6)
question without inversion 32
after question word 25(1)
after should, were, had 258(3)
inverted commas 56(4)
invest ..in 234(2)
invitations
answering 29(3)
imperative 19(3), 19 (4b)


key: chroma:document
string_value:
answering 29(3)
imperative 19(3), 19 (4b)
won't 71(6)
invite
invite back 232(2)
verb of reporting 265(2), 270(2c)
invite... to 234(1)
+ object + to-infinitive 122(2a)
involve with gerund 121(1), 131(5)
involved
involved in 236(4)
position 201(2)
iron
countable/uncountable noun 144(5c)
iron out 232(2)
irregular forms
comparison 218(2b, 5), 219(2)
noun plurals 295
verbs 299
is 84(2), 151(1)
short form 55(2)
weak form 55(1b)
it 184(1, 3)
overview 184(4)
+ be for emphasis 51(3)


key: chroma:document
string_value:
overview 184(4)
+ be for emphasis 51(3)
replacing clause 44(4)
replacing demonstrative 175 (4b) Note,
184(3b) Note d, 267(2) Note
do it/so/that 43(2)
empty object 50(5b), 122(2d) Note c
empty subject 50(5), 109(1,3), 118(1),
131(1, 2), 262(4)
leaving out 42(1)
and one 188(4)
passive pattern 109(1,3)
with short form 55(2b)
and there 50(6)
item of 144(4a)
its 174(3)
and it's 174(3) Note d
it's 55(2b) Note a
itself 186
jealous of 236(2)
jeans: pair noun 155(4)
jewellery: uncountable 144(4b)


key: chroma:document
string_value:
jewellery: uncountable 144(4b)
job with a/an 161(2)
job of + gerund 132(7)
jog: have a jog 87 (2)
join with/without object 8(3)
journey and travel 87 (2)
judge + object + to-infinitive 122 (2c)
judgement: spelling 292(4) Note
jury: group noun 156(4)
just
just about to/going to 78(1a) Note
just about+ superlative 212(3)
just as + adjective 221(8)
just as (conjunction) 250(4d)
degree 212(7a)
= only 213(2a) Note b
time 65(5a), 210(1c), 303(6)
justify with gerund 121(1), 131(5)
keen


key: chroma:document
string_value:
justify with gerund 121(1), 131(5)
keen
comparison 218(4a)
keen on 236(2)
keen on + gerund 132(4), 132(5b) Note c
with to-infinitive 123(5), 126(2),
132(5b) Note c
keep
clause pattern 10(5), 11
keep on 232(2)
keep (on) + gerund 121(1)
keep up 232 (1b)
keep up with 235(2)
was kept waiting 110(2)
kept you waiting 140(2)
key to 237(2f)
kind
kind to 236(3)
with to-infinitive 123(1), 126(5)
kind of 53(1c), 144(3e)
what kind of 28(1), 144(3e)
what kind of and what... like
198(1) Note a


key: chroma:document
string_value:
what kind of and what... like
198(1) Note a
kingdom in names 171(1)
knife, knives 296(2) INDEX
knock
knock at/on 233(2)
knockdown 232(2)
knock off 232(2)
knock out 232(2)
know
get to know 62(5) Note
I know 43(3b)
+ noun clause 262(1c)
without object 8(2)
passive 104(6b), 109
verb of reporting 265(2)
state verb 62(l,5)
+ object + to-infinitive 122(2c)
know what to do 125(2)
you know 53(1c)
see also want to know
knowledge
with a l44(4b) Note b
knowledge of 237(2j)
lack
+ object 233 (4)


key: chroma:document
string_value:
knowledge of 237(2j)
lack
+ object 233 (4)
lack of 237 (2k)
not passive 104(6b)
state verb 62(1)
land: uncountable 144 (4b)
last
indirect speech 267(2)
and Iatest 2l8(5c)
with the 160(4)
in phrase of time 65(3a), 169(8), 227(2)
+ to-infinitive 277
lastly 207(4) Note c
late
late for 236(1)
position 200(3)
lately 207(5)
with present perfect 65(2)
later without preposition 227(2)
latest
and last 218(5c)
the latest 204 (2b)
laugh: verb and noun 87(2), 287(1)
laughter: uncountable 144(4b)


key: chroma:document
string_value:
laughter: uncountable 144(4b)
lay and lie 11 (2) Note b, 300
lead
clause pattern 11(2)
+ object + to-infinitive 122 (2b)
leaf, leaves 296(2)
learn
forms 300, 301,303(11)
learn from 234(2)
+ noun clause 262(1c)
verb of reporting 265(2)
+ to-infinitive 121(1)
learn how to do it 125(2)
learned (adjective) 301
least 220, 221 (2a)
not in the least 17(6b)
leave
clause patterns 8(2), 10(5)
leave for 233(4) Note b
leave you waiting 140(2)
leave off + gerund 121(1)
leave out 232(1b)


key: chroma:document
string_value:
leave off + gerund 121(1)
leave out 232(1b)
passive patterns 108(3), 110(2)
leaving out words
summary 36
before adjective 199(5)
answering question 29
articles 42(3), 45, 167-9
subject of co-ordinate clause 239(1a)
after if 259(2)
noun 44(1), 181
object 8
one(s) 188(2)
preposition before wh-clause 262(5) Note
relative pronoun 273(5)
that 261(3), 264(2a)
to before infinitive 116(6)
leisure: uncountable 144(4b)
lend
passive 108(3)
with to 10(5)
length 196(2)
less 220, 221(1,2)
a lot less 2l2(8i)


key: chroma:document
string_value:
less 220, 221(1,2)
a lot less 2l2(8i)
suffix 285 (5e)
lest 307 (2)
let
let down 232(2)
imperative form 19(6)
let in on 235(3)
let me 19(6b)
+ object + infinitive 127(3a)
not in passive 110(1b) Note
let's 19(6a)
question tag 34(6)
lie and be 84(4)
lie down 87(2), 186(2d)
and lay 11 (2) Note b, 300
linking verb 9(2)
lying 294(2) Note
+ participle 138(1)
there lies 50(4)
life
countable/uncountable 144(5d)
plural 296(2)
light: countable/uncountable 144(5c)
lightning: uncountable 144(4b)


key: chroma:document
string_value:
lightning: uncountable 144(4b)
like (conjunction) and as 253 (2)
like (preposition) 221(1) Note
and as 228(6)
like (verb)
clause pattern 11(1)
+ gerund/to-infinitive 121(2)
+ object + gerund 131(5)
passive 104 (6b)
state verb 62(l,4)
+ object + to-infinitive 122(2d)
and would like39(2) Note, 99(3a)
likeable 292 (3) Note
likely 96 Note, 207(2)
+ to-infinitive 123(6)
link between/with 237(2c)
linking adverbial 216
in front position 49(1b)
linking verb 9
and action verb 209 (1b)


key: chroma:document
string_value:
linking verb 9
and action verb 209 (1b)
US 303(1) PAGE 425 INDEX
linking word: see conjunction, linking
adverbial
liquid measure 196(4)
listen
action 62(7) Note b
listen to 233(2)
listen to + object + participle 140(1)
litter: uncountable 144(4b)
little
negative word 17(4)
quantifier 177(2)
= small 200(1) Note a
very little 212(8a)
live
linking verb 9(2)
live on 233(2)
there lives 50(4)
live up to 235(2)
lively 207 (2)
lives (plural noun) 296(2)
livestock 156(6)
living: the living 204(1b)


key: chroma:document
string_value:
livestock 156(6)
living: the living 204(1b)
'll (short form) 71(1)
loads of 177 (4A)
loaf 144(3b)
loaves 296(2)
location
adverbial of place 210
preposition of place 255
lock up 232 (2)
logic: certainty 95
lonely 207(2)
long (adverb) 207(3), 210(4)
long (verb) with to-infinitive 121(1), 126(1)
long and short forms 55
look
action/state 62(3), 62(7) Note b
looks as if 50(5c), 253(2) Note
look forward to 235(1)
look forward to + gerund 132(6)
have a look 87(2)
linking verb 9(1), 303(1)


key: chroma:document
string_value:
have a look 87(2)
linking verb 9(1), 303(1)
lookout 232(3)
look out for 235(2)
look out over 235(1)
+ preposition 233(1)
look up 232(3)
look up to 235(2)
verb and noun 287(1)
lose
get lost 107(2)
with/without object 8(2)
passive pattern 110(2)
lose time + participle 140(3)
lot of: see a lot of
lots of 177(1)
loud and loudly 207 (4)
love
+ gerund/to-infinitive 121(2)
+ object + gerund 131(5)
passive 104 (6b)
state verb 62(1), 62(4)
+ object + to-infinitive 122(2d)
verb and noun 287(1)


key: chroma:document
string_value:
verb and noun 287(1)
machinery: uncountable 144(4b)
made of 236(4)
magnificent
quite magnificent 212(5c)
not with very212(1a) Note a
mail (verb) 287(3)
main: position 200(1)
majority 178(2a) Note b
agreement 153(2), 156(4)
make (noun) 144(3e)
make (verb)
clause patterns 9(1), 10(5), 11(1)
and do 89
empty verb 87
+ object + infinitive 127(3a)
make out 232(2)
passive pattern 110(1b)
make up for 235(2)
make up your mind 125(2)
male noun 285 (3e) Note
man suffix 285 (3e) Note b


key: chroma:document
string_value:
man suffix 285 (3e) Note b
nationality word 288(2d)
man, men 296(1)
man/woman + noun 145(1c)
manage + to-infinitive 121(1)
management: group noun 156(4)
manner 207(2), 209(2)
singular/plural 154(1b)
manner adverb: see adverb of manner
many 177(1), 178(7a)
very many 212(8a)
market without the 168(4)
married
get married 107 (2)
married to 236(4)
marry + object 233(4)
marvellous
quite marvellous 212(5c)
with to-infinitive 123(1), 126(2)
not with very 212(1a) Note a
masculine noun 285 (3e) Note


key: chroma:document
string_value:
masculine noun 285 (3e) Note
mass noun: see uncountable noun
masses of 177(4a)
mathematics 154(2)
matter
matter of + gerund 132(7)
state verb 62(1,5)
matter with 237(2k)
mature: comparison 218(4b) INDEX PAGE 426
may
with but 246(1) Note b
indirect speech 268(3c)
permission 94
possibility 91
expressing wish 19(6c) Note
may have done 97(3)
maybe 97(1a) Note b, 214(1)
mayn't 97(1a) Note a
me 184(1)
weak form 55(1b)
meal and eat 87 (2)
meal without article 169(7)


key: chroma:document
string_value:
meal and eat 87 (2)
meal without article 169(7)
mean (adjective) with to-infinitive 123(1, 5),
126(5)
mean (verb)
+ gerund/to-infinitive 121 (3f)
+ object + gerund 131(5)
+ noun clause 262(1c)
passive 104(6b), 109(2)
state verb 62(4) Note a
+ object + to-infinitive 122(2b)
means: by/with 228(5)
means (noun) 154(3)
measles 154(2)
measure: action/state 62(3), 104(6b)
measurements 196
+ adjective 199(1) Note b
+ singular verb 152(3)
media 298(2)
with the 160(5)
melt: with/without object 8(3)


key: chroma:document
string_value:
with the 160(5)
melt: with/without object 8(3)
men 296(1)
mention
+ gerund 121(1)
+ object + gerund 131(5)
+ noun clause 262(lc, 1d)
verb of reporting 265(2)
mere: position 200(1)
method of 237 (2f)
mice 296(1)
mid position 208(4)
midday without article 169(6)
middle-aged: the middle-aged 204(1b)
midnight without article 169(6)
might
in conditionals 257 (3b, 4d, 6b)
indirect speech 268 (3c)
permission 94(2) Note
possibility 97
might as well 97(1e)
might have done 97(3), 257 (6b)


key: chroma:document
string_value:
might have done 97(3), 257 (6b)
mileage: spelling 293(2) Note
military: group noun 156(4)
million 191(1)
millions of 191(3)
mind
+ gerund 121(l) Note d
+ object + gerund 131(5)
+ noun clause 262(1c)
mine 174(3)
minority 156(4), 178(2a) Note b
minute: time of day 195(1)
the minute (conjunction) 250(5)
misrelated participle 136(2) Note
miss with gerund 121(1), 131 (5)
mistake (noun) with to-infinitive 126(4)
mistake (verb) with for 234(2)
mix with/without object 8(3)
mob: group noun 156(4)


key: chroma:document
string_value:
mob: group noun 156(4)
modal verb
summary 90
overview 102
+ bare infinitive 127(1)
in indirect speech 268(3c, 3d)
passive 106, 114(2)
with performative verb 16(3)
modern: comparison 218(4b)
modifier 143(2c)
adjective 198(1)
adverb of degree 212
adverbial 206(3)
noun 147
clause after a noun 272(2)
phrase after a noun 148, 272(2)
of number 191(4)
of preposition 224(3)
molten 301
moment: the moment (conjunction) 250(5)
money 196(1)
money: uncountable 144(4b)
month with/without article 169(3)


key: chroma:document
string_value:
month with/without article 169(3)
monthly 207(6), 211 (4)
months 296(3) Note
mood: see subjunctive
more
+ adjective 218, 221(1)
+ adverb 219(3)
a lot more 180(2c), 212(8f)
quantifier 220
more so 43 (5a)
some more 180(2)
moreover 244(2)
most
+ adjective 218
+ adverb 219(3)
in phrase of frequency 211 (3)
and mostly 207 (5)
quantifier 178(2), 220
mouse, mice 296(1)
mouths 296(3)
move: with/without object 8(3)
movement: prepositions 225(2)
Mr, Mrs, Miss, Ms 170(1)
much
+ comparative 212(2), 221(8)


key: chroma:document
string_value:
much
+ comparative 212(2), 221(8)
+ gerund 133(1), 138(2c)
much more 212(8f)
not so much ... as 218(2a) Note d
quantifier 177(1), 178(7a), 212(8a)
much too 212(1a) Note i, 212(8) Note
very much 212(7d), 212(8a)
mumps 154(2)
murmur: verb of reporting 265(2)
must
certainty 95
must do and must be doing 95(4)
indirect speech 268(3d), 270(1c)
necessity 92(1)
weak form 55(1b) PAGE 427 INDEX
mustn't 92(4)
indirect speech 268 (3d)
and needn't 92(4b)
US 303(10)
mutter: verb of reporting 265(2)
my 174(3)


key: chroma:document
string_value:
mutter: verb of reporting 265(2)
my 174(3)
myself 186
mysterious: the mysterious 204(2a)
name: clause pattern 11(1)
names
agreement 152(3), 156(5)
subject of gerund 130(2)
months, days without article 169
of people 56(6c), 170
of places and the 171
narrow
comparison 218(4b)
verb 287(4)
nationality word 288
with a/an 161 (2)
natural + to-infinitive 123(1)
navy: group noun 156(4)
near 225(1), 226(6)
nearly 212 (7a)
nearly all/every 212 (8d)
and near 207 (5)
nearest and next 218(5d)
necessary


key: chroma:document
string_value:
nearest and next 218(5d)
necessary
as/than necessary 199(5b)
+ subjunctive 242(1)
with to-infinitive 123(1), 126(2)
necessity 92
in indirect speech 268(3d)
need 92(3b)
need for 237(2g)
+ gerund 113(1)
passive 104(6b)
+ object + passive participle 140(5)
state verb 62(1)
+ to-infinitive 121(3h), 124(1a)
US 303(9)
verb and noun 287(1)
needn't 92 (3)
in indirect speech 268(3d)
and mustn't 92(4)
needn't have done 93(3c)
negative 17
in passive 105(2)
with truth adverb 214(1)
see also not


key: chroma:document
string_value:
with truth adverb 214(1)
see also not
negative gerund 129(4)
negative imperative 19(1)
negative infinitive 116(5)
negative participle 135(6)
negative prefix 284(2)
and comparison 218(4b) Note
after not 17(3) Note b
with participle 137(2) Note
negative question 30
as exclamation 20(3)
negative statement 17
negative word 17(4)
adverbial in front position 17(6c)
+ any 179(1c)
neglect+ to-infinitive 121(1)
neither
in short addition 43(1c)
agreement 153(5)
negative word 17(4)
neither... nor 245(2)


key: chroma:document
string_value:
negative word 17(4)
neither... nor 245(2)
quantifier 178(4)
nervous of 132(4), 236(2)
never 211(l,2)
and ever 211(l) Note c
negative word 17(4)
with past 303 (6)
nevertheless 246(2)
new: the new 204(2a)
news
+ noun clause 262(7)
with singular verb 154(2)
uncountable 144(4a)
newspaper headlines: see headlines
newspaper with the 160(5)
next
indirect speech 267(2)
and nearest 218(5d)
with past 65(3a)
with the 160(4)
in phrase of time 169(2), 227(2)
next to 225(1), 226(6d)
+ to-infinitive 277
nice


key: chroma:document
string_value:
next to 225(1), 226(6d)
+ to-infinitive 277
nice
nice and + adjective 202(3a) Note
with to-infinitive 123(1), 126(2, 5)
night
with/without article 169(6)
with at/in 227(1c) Note
no
answering negative question 30(3)
+ comparative 212(2, 8f)
+ gerund 133(1)
negative word 17(4), 179(2)
and none 181(2)
and not 17(2c)
quantifier 179(2)
as question tag 34(1) Note f
refusing permission 94(1b) Note, 133(1)
+ singular noun 145(2c) Note
no good + gerund 131 (2a)
no longer 210(3a)
no matter 245(2)


key: chroma:document
string_value:
no longer 210(3a)
no matter 245(2)
no one 189(1a)
negative word 17(4)
no sooner... than 250(5)
no way 17(6c)
nobody: see no one
noise: countable/uncountable 144(5d)
nominal: see noun
nominalization 149
non-count noun: see uncountable noun
non-defining relative clause: see non-
identifying
non-finite clause 239(3b), 240(3), 249(4)
non-finite verb 59
non-gradable adjective
with quite 212(5c)
not with very 212(1a) Note a INDEX PAGE 428
non-identifying relative clause 272(4a, 5),
274


key: chroma:document
string_value:
non-identifying relative clause 272(4a, 5),
274
non-restrictive relative clause: see non-
identifying
none 178(2b, 2d)
agreement 153(5)
negative word 17(4)
and neither 178(4b)
and no 181(2)
noon without article 169(6) Note
noplace 305(3)
nor
in short addition 43(1c)
negative word 17(4)
neither... nor 245(2)
normal
comparison 218(4b)
+ to-infinitive 123(1)
normally 211(1, 2)
not 17
not only... but also 152(4), 244(4)
short form 55 (2b)
not unless 259(6a) Note
not very 212(1a) Note c


key: chroma:document
string_value:
not unless 259(6a) Note
not very 212(1a) Note c
weak form 55(1b)
see also negative
note down 232(2)
nothing 189(1b)
negative word 17(4)
notice
notice you do/doing 140(1)
+ noun clause 262(1c)
with/without object 8(2)
passive pattern 109(1)
notify: verb of reporting 265(2, 3)
nought 191(5) Note
noun
summary 141
+ adjective 201
without article 162(1), 164, 165, 167
compound 283
+ ed 137(4)
+ indirect speech 265(5)
+ ly 207(6)
+ noun 147, 283(1)
from other words 285(2,3)
from phrasal verb 231 (7)


key: chroma:document
string_value:
from phrasal verb 231 (7)
+ phrase 148, 149(3), 165
with plural form 154
+ preposition 237
+ preposition + gerund 132(7)
+ relative clause 271
+ that-clause 262(7)
+ to-infinitive 124
noun clause 260
punctuation 56(3b)
noun phrase 143
as adverbial 206(1)
equivalent to clause 149
after noun 148(2)
noun plural: see plural noun
now 44 (5)
indirect speech 267(2)
now (that) 251(1)
and this 175(4a)
nowhere 189 (1c)
negative word 17(4)
n't: see negative
short form 55(2)
nuisance
+ gerund 131 (2a)


key: chroma:document
string_value:
short form 55(2)
nuisance
+ gerund 131 (2a)
with to-infinitive 126(4), 131(2a) Note
number (singular and plural)
agreement 150
plural of nouns 145
number of 177(4a)
agreement 153(2)
number of times 194
frequency 211(3)
with present perfect 65(5b)
numbers 190
in compound 283(5)
after some 179(5d)
numerous 177 (4a)
obey + object 233(4)
object 5, 8
and adverbial 208(5b)
direct and indirect 10
in front position 49(2)
of phrasal verb 231(3)
without preposition 233(4)
object
+ noun clause 262(1c)


key: chroma:document
string_value:
object
+ noun clause 262(1c)
passive pattern 109(1)
performative 16(3)
object to 233(2)
object to + gerund 132(2, 6)
verb of reporting 265(2), 270(2e, 2g)
object complement 11(1)
object pronoun 184(1)
of phrasal/prepositionalverb 231(4)
object relative pronoun 273(3)
objection to 237(1) Note a
+ gerund 132(7)
obligation 93
oblige + object + to-infinitive 122(2b)
obliged to 92(1a) Note c
observe
observe you do/doing 140(1)
+ noun clause 262(lc, 1d)
passive patterns 109
verb of reporting 265(2)


key: chroma:document
string_value:
passive patterns 109
verb of reporting 265(2)
obvious
obvious to 236(4)
obvious what to do 125(2)
occasionally 211(1, 2)
occur
there occurred 50(4)
occur to 233(4)
o'clock 195(1) Note a
odd+ to-infinitive 123(1)
odds 154(1a)
of 228(3)
of all 221(7)
in compound preposition 225(1) Note a
after gerund 133(2)
of my own 174(6b)
nice of you 126(5)
in nominalization 149 INDEX
after noun 160(3), 165(2), 170(1) Note b
after number 191(3) Note, 193(1b)
in place name 171
after place/month 148(2) Note


key: chroma:document
string_value:
in place name 171
after place/month 148(2) Note
and possessive form 146(3,4), 149
+ possessive pronoun 174(5)
after quantifier 178(1c, 1d), 181(3)
of-pattern for quantity 144(3), 147(6)
verb + about/of 233(3b), 234(5)
weak form 55(1b)
of whom/which 274(4), 275(2) Note
off 225(1), 228(5b) Note
in phrasal verb 232(2), 232(4)
offer
passive 108(3)
+ to-infinitive 121(1), 124(1a)
verb of reporting 265(2), 270(2b)
with to 10(5)
offers
answering 29(3a)
can 97(2b)
conditional 256(2)


key: chroma:document
string_value:
answering 29(3a)
can 97(2b)
conditional 256(2)
imperative 19(3), 19(4b)
intonation 54 (2b)
question 22(2)
shall 71(7)
with some 179 (1d)
will 16(2), 71(6)
often 211(1,2)
oil (verb) 287(3)
old
position 202(1a) Note b
the old 204(lb, 2a)
omission: see leaving out words
omit + to-infinitive 121(1)
on
= about 228(1), 237(2i)
and at, in 226(1), 227(1)
+ gerund 132(8a) Note b
have... on 85(1) Note c
and onto 225(2c)
in phrasal verb 232(2), 232(4)
place 225(1), 228(5b) Note
time 227 (1b, 1c)


key: chroma:document
string_value:
place 225(1), 228(5b) Note
time 227 (1b, 1c)
with transport 228(5b)
on account of 132(8a), 251(3)
on behalf of 228(1)
on board 228 (5b) Note
on condition that 259(4) Note a
on the contrary 246(5) Note
on the other hand 246(2)
on the phone 228 (5c) Note
on the point of 78(1b), 80(3)
on/in the way 229 (2c)
on top of 225(1), 226(3)
once 194(1)
conjunction 139(3), 250(1), 250(3)
frequency 211(3)
with present perfect 65(5b)
one
and a/an 163
and body in compounds 189(1a)
one day 163(3)


key: chroma:document
string_value:
and body in compounds 189(1a)
one day 163(3)
one/a hundred 191(1) Note b
after (an)other 181(1) Note c
one ...the other 186(4c) Note
pronoun 178(1e), 185(2), 188
and someone 189(1a) Note c
US 304(6)
one another 186(4)
one of 153(1), 163(2), 178(1c, 1e)
with superlative 221(7) Note b
one of whom/which 274(4)
owes 188
one's 185(2b)
oneself 185(2b)
only 213(2)
only a few 177(2a) Note b
with an/the 160(4)
and inversion 17 (6c)
with a number 191(4)
if only 241 (2d)
position of adjective 200(1)


key: chroma:document
string_value:
if only 241 (2d)
position of adjective 200(1)
with to-infinitive 277
onto 225(1, 2c)
open with/without object 8(3)
open condition 256(1), 257(2,3)
past 257(5)
opinion
asking for 34(1) Note e
present simple 64 (2b)
opinion of 237(2h)
opportunity
opportunity of 237 (2b)
+ to-infinitive 124(1b)
opposed to 236(4)
+ gerund 132(6)
opposite 225(1)
and in front of 226(7c)
opposition: group noun 156(4)
or
in conditional 259 (6c)
linking word 13, 152(2), 245
with pronoun 184(1c)
in question 31


key: chroma:document
string_value:
with pronoun 184(1c)
in question 31
or rather 216(2)
orchestra: group noun 156(4)
order
with for 10 (5)
+ noun clause 262(1c)
performative 16(3)
verb of reporting 265(2), 270(1a)
+ object + to-infinitive 122(2a)
order of words: see word order
orders
be to 76(2)
imperative 19(2)
must 95(4)
reported 270(1)
ordinal number 192
after cardinal number 143(3h)
in date 195(2a)
in fraction 193(1a)
+ to-infinitive 277
ordinary: the ordinary 204(2a)
ordinary verb 60(2)
be, have, do 83


key: chroma:document
string_value:
ordinary verb 60(2)
be, have, do 83
other 180(3), 181(1) Note c
other than 189(4) Note b
the other day 65 (3a)
PAGE 429 INDEX PAGE 430
otherwise 216(1), 259(6b) Note
ought to
indirect speech 268(3c)
obligation 93(1)
probability 96
our, ours 174(3)
ourselves 186
out
in phrasal verb 232(2), 232(4)
prefix 284(1)
out of 225(1), 228(5b) Note
motive 251(3) Note b
US 306(1)
outdoor: position 200(1)
outer: position 200(1)
outside 225(1)
outskirts 154(1a)
over
and above 226(2)
= more than 191(4)


key: chroma:document
string_value:
over
and above 226(2)
= more than 191(4)
in phrasal verb 232(2), 232(4)
place 225(1)
prefix 284(1)
time 227(4d)
overviews
a/an, some and the 166
active and passive verb forms 114
basic uses of articles 160(7)
comparison of adjectives 218(4d)
emphasis 51(5)
future 81
imperative forms 19(7)
inversion 49(4)
uses of it 184(4)
modal verbs 102
nationality words 288(3)
structure of noun phrase 143(2d)
one and ones 188(5)
pronouns and Possessives 187
uses of so 43 (6)
verb tenses and aspects 69


key: chroma:document
string_value:
uses of so 43 (6)
verb tenses and aspects 69
who, whom, which and that 273(6)
owe
passive 108(3)
state verb 62(1)
with to 10(5)
own
my own 174(6)
passive 104 (6b)
state verb 62(1, 5)
own up to 235 (2)
ox, oxen 298(1)
pack up 232 (2)
pains 154(1b)
paint: clause patterns 8(2), 11(1)
painting: countable/uncountable 144(5d)
pair noun 155
pants: pair noun 155(4)
paper
countable/uncountable 144(5c)
the paper 160(5)
parcel (verb) 287(3)
part 178(6)
part with 233 (2)
participate in 233(2)
participle


key: chroma:document
string_value:
participate in 233(2)
participle
summary 134
as adjective 203
before noun 137
pattern with there 50(3)
see also active participle, passive
participle
participle clause 134, 136
participle relative clause 276
particle: see phrasal verb
particulars 154(1a)
partitive of 144(3), 147(6)
parts of speech 3
party: group noun 156(4)
pass
clause patterns 8(2), 10(5)
pass out 232(2)
passive pattern 108(3)
passive 103
overview of forms 114
passive gerund 112, 114(3), 132(8a) Note c


key: chroma:document
string_value:
passive gerund 112, 114(3), 132(8a) Note c
passive infinitive 112, 114(3)
in relative clause 277 Note a
passive participle 105(1), 135(1,3)
action/state 105(4)
with adverb of degree 212(7b)
after get 107
irregular 300
before noun 137
formed from phrasal verb 231(7)
in relative clause 276(2)
past
clock time 195(1)
place 225(1)
past continuous 66
in conditionals 257 (4d)
passive 105(1c)
past form 58
irregular 300
of modal verb 91(3)
pronunciation 291(2)
spelling 65(1) Note a


key: chroma:document
string_value:
pronunciation 291(2)
spelling 65(1) Note a
past participle 135(1, 3)
irregular 300, 301
before noun 137(3)
in present perfect 65(1)
pronunciation 291 (2)
spelling 65(1) Note a
past perfect 68
in conditionals 257(6)
and had it done 111 (2) Note a
in indirect speech 268(3b)
inversion 258(3)
passive 105(1b)
and past perfect continuous 68(5a)
and past simple 68(3)
unreal past 241 (3a)
after wish2il(2c)
past perfect continuous 68
and past continuous 68(5b)
and past perfect 68(5a)


key: chroma:document
string_value:
and past perfect 68(5a)
past progressive: see past continuous INDEX
past simple 65
in conditionals 257(4, 5)
irregular 300
passive 105(1a)
and past continuous 66(2)
and past perfect 68(3)
and present perfect 65(4)
unreal present 241 (3a)
US 303(6)
past subjunctive 242(3)
past tense
in indirect speech 268
sequence of tenses 241
past simple 65
paths 296(3)
pay: uncountable noun 144 (4b)
pay (verb)
and pay for 233(1) Note b
pay for + gerund 132(2, 5a)
passive pattern 108(3)
with to 10(5)


key: chroma:document
string_value:
passive pattern 108(3)
with to 10(5)
+ to-infinitive 132(5a)
peaceful: comparison 218(4b)
pennies and pence 296(5)
people 296(1) Note b
with plural verb 156(6)
and they 185(4)
per 172(1) Note
per cent 193(3)
perception: see verb of perception
perfect 61(3)
with modal verb 91(4), 95(3), 97(1c), 97(3),
106(2)
passive 105(1b), 106(2), 114(1)
see also present perfect etc
perfect
position 200(3)
quite perfect 212(5c)
+ to-infinitive 123(1)
not with very 2l2(1a) Note a
perfect gerund 129
passive 112


key: chroma:document
string_value:
perfect gerund 129
passive 112
perfect infinitive 116(1)
passive 112
perfect participle 135(1, 5)
in clause of time 139(1d)
performative verb 16(3)
period (full stop) 56(1)
permission 22(2), 94
permission: uncountable 144(4b)
permit
+ gerund 121(1) Note f
stress 287(2)
+ object + to-infinitive 122(2b)
person: suffix 285(3e) Note b
personal pronoun 184
before gerund 130(2)
+ relative clause 272(2) Note
and relative pronoun 272(7)
persons 296(1) Note b
persuade
verb of reporting 265(3)


key: chroma:document
string_value:
persuade
verb of reporting 265(3)
+ object + to-infinitive 122(2a)
phenomena 298(2)
phone (noun) after preposition 228(5c)
phone (verb)
phone back 232(2)
+ object 233(3c) Note
phonetic symbols: page ix
phrasal-prepositional verb 235
passive 105(3)
phrasal verb 230
passive 105(3), 231(5)
and prepositional verb 231 (4)
phrase 4
after adjective 201(1)
after noun 148, 149(3), 165
after pronoun 184(1e) Note d
as subject 152(6)
phrase of time 210(1)
and articles 169
physics 154(2)
pick
with for 10(5)


key: chroma:document
string_value:
physics 154(2)
pick
with for 10(5)
pick out 232(2)
piece of 144(3b, 4a)
pincers 155(4)
pity (noun)
countable 144(5e)
pity for 231(1)
pity: state verb 62(1)
place: preposition 225
place adverbial 210
see also adverbial of place
place names and the 171
plan with to-infinitive 78(3), 121(1), 124(1a),
126(4)
play with/without object 8(2)
pleasant
comparison 218(4b)
+ to-infinitive 123(1)
pleased
+ noun clause 262 (6a)
position 200(2)
+ preposition 236(2) Note a
+ preposition + gerund 132(4),


key: chroma:document
string_value:
+ preposition + gerund 132(4),
132(5b) Note d
+ to-infinitive 123(5), 132(5b) Note d
pleasing: comparison 218(4b)
pleasure
countable 144(5e)
pleasure in 237(1)
+ preposition + gerund 132(7)
plenty 180(1)
pliers 155(4)
plural name 171(1)
plural noun
after fraction 193(1c)
generalization 162(1)
irregular 295
pronunciation, spelling 290
regular 145
with/without the 165
plural or singular verb 150
plus: conjunction 244(2) Note
pm (time) 195(1) Note a, c
pocket (verb) 287(3)
PAGE 431 INDEX PAGE 432


key: chroma:document
string_value:
pocket (verb) 287(3)
PAGE 431 INDEX PAGE 432
point
point... at 234(2)
point at/to 233 (2)
+ preposition + gerund 132(7}
point out 232(2), 262(1c, 1d), 265(2)
police
with plural verb 156(6)
the police 160(5)
polite
comparison 218(4b)
polite to 236(3)
with to-infinitive 123(1), 126(5)
politics 154(2)
pollution: uncountable 144(4b)
poor
position 200(3)
the poor 204(1b)
population: group noun 156(4)
popular with 236(4)
position of adjectives 200-2
position of adverbials 208


key: chroma:document
string_value:
position of adverbials 208
possess: state verb 62(1, 5)
possessive form of noun 146
as determiner 143(3d), 165(2) Note
before gerund 130(2)
pronunciation 290(4)
expressing time and place 146(5)
Possessives 174
each/one another's 186(4)
else's 189(4) Note a
one's 185(2b)
someone's etc 189(3)
possibility 97
if-clause 257(4c)
possibility 97(1a) Note b
possibility of 132(7), 237(2b)
possible 97(1a) Note b
as possible 199(5b)
position 201(2) Note b
+ to-infinitive 123(1), 123(2) Note


key: chroma:document
string_value:
+ to-infinitive 123(1), 123(2) Note
post (noun): the post 160(5)
post (verb) with to 10(5)
postpone + gerund 121(1)
potatoes 290(2)
poultry 156(6)
pound 196(1), 297 Note a
pour with/without object 8(3)
practise
+ gerund 121(1)
with/without object 8(2)
and practice 308 (5)
praise... for 234 (2)
pray: verb of reporting 265(2)
predicative adjective 199(2, 4), 200(2)
comparison 218(3)
order 202(3)
predict
+ noun clause 262(1c)
performative 16(3)
verb of reporting 265(2)
prediction


key: chroma:document
string_value:
verb of reporting 265(2)
prediction
be going to 72(1), 74(1)
could 97(2d)
I predict 16(3)
may/might 97(1a), 97(2d)
, 74(1), 95(1)
prefer
clause pattern 11(1)
with gerund 121(1), 131(5), 132(6)
+ noun clause 262(1c)
state verb 62(1, 5)
prefer... to 132(6), 234(2)
with to-infinitive 121(2), 122(2d)
preferable
+ subjunctive 242(1)
preferable to 221 (1) Note
preference: see prefer, would prefer,
would rather
preference for 237 (2g)
prefix 284
hyphen 56(5d)
premises 154 (1a)


key: chroma:document
string_value:
prefix 284
hyphen 56(5d)
premises 154 (1a)
preparations + to -infinitive 124 (1a)
prepare
prepare for 126(1), 233(2)
with to-infinitive 121(1), 126(1)
prepared
prepared for 236(4)
+ to-infinitive 123(5)
preposition
summary 223
after adjective/noun/verb 230
+ gerund 132
after infinitive 117(2)
modified 224(3)
in passive 105(3), 234(1)
+ personal or reflexive pronoun 186(2b)
in question 25(3), 26(3)
+ question word + to-infinitive 125(2)
in relative clause 273(4), 274(3)
+ wh-clause 262(5)


key: chroma:document
string_value:
+ wh-clause 262(5)
+ whose 275(3)
prepositional adverb (particle): see phrasal
verb
prepositional phrase 224(2)
after adjective 201 (2)
idiomatic 229
manner 209(2)
after noun 148(2)
as subject 208(3) Note
truth adverbial 214(2)
prepositional verb 231(2), 233
+ gerund 132(2)
passive 105(3), 231(5)
and phrasal verb 231(4)
present (adjective)
present at 236 (4)
position 200(3), 201(2)
present (verb) with preposition 234(3)
present continuous 64
in conditionals 257(2b) Note, 257(3b, 3c)


key: chroma:document
string_value:
in conditionals 257(2b) Note, 257(3b, 3c)
future meaning 73(1), 74
passive 105(1c)
performative verbs 16(3) Note c
present perfect 65
in conditionals 257(3b)
passive 105(1b)
and past simple 65(4)
and present perfect continuous 67(2)
US 303(6) PAGE 433 INDEX
present perfect continuous 67
present progressive: see present continuous
present simple 64
agreement 151(2)
in conditions 257(2, 3)
future meaning 73(1), 77
passive 105(1a)
performative verbs 16(3)
in sub clause 77


key: chroma:document
string_value:
performative verbs 16(3)
in sub clause 77
present tense narrative 64(2e)
press
group noun 156(4)
the press 160(5)
presume
+ noun clause 262 (1c)
passive patterns 109
presume so/not 43 (3)
+ object + to-infinitive 122(2c)
pretend
+ noun clause 262(1c)
+ to-infinitive 121(1)
pretty
adverb 212(1a)
comparison 218 (4b)
prevent
prevent.. .from 132(3), 234(2)
with gerund 131(5), 132(3), 234(2)
negative meaning 17(4) Note a
previous 169(8), 227(2b)
indirect speech 267(2)
price of 237(l)


key: chroma:document
string_value:
indirect speech 267(2)
price of 237(l)
principal: position 200(1)
prison without the 168
privileged: the privileged 204 (1 b)
pro-form (replacing words) 36
probability: should, ought to 96
probably 214(1)
with will 74(1)
problem
with gerund 131 (2b, 2c), 132(7)
problem in/of 132(7)
produce: stress 287(2)
progress
uncountable noun 144(4b)
stress 287(2)
progressive: see continuous
prohibition 94(1b)
promise
+ noun clause 262(1c, 1d)
passive pattern 108(3), 109(1)
performative 16(3)


key: chroma:document
string_value:
passive pattern 108(3), 109(1)
performative 16(3)
verb of reporting 265(2), 270(2b, 2g, 2h)
with to 10(5)
+ to-infinitive 121(1), 124(1a)
verb and noun 287(1)
promises
I promise 16(3)
shall 71(8)
will 71(6)
pronoun
summary 183
after as/than 221(5)
demonstrative 175
after give 10(4)
possessive 174
patterns with quantifiers 178(1d, 1g)
quantifier as pronoun 181
+ relative clause 272(2) Note, 273(5) Note
pronunciation of endings 289
proof: uncountable 144(4b)
prop word one 188


key: chroma:document
string_value:
proof: uncountable 144(4b)
prop word one 188
proper noun: see name
property: countable/uncountable 144(5c)
proposal + to-infinitive 124(1a)
propose
+ gerund/to-infinitive 121(2)
+ noun clause 262(1c, 1d)
+ passive clause 112(2c) Note
passive patterns 109(1,3)
performative 16(3)
verb of reporting 265(2)
+ subjunctive 242(1)
prospect of + gerund 132(7)
protest
+ noun clause 262(1c, 1d)
performative 16(3)
+ preposition 306(4)
stress 287(2)
proud
+ noun clause 262 (6a)
proud of 236(2)


key: chroma:document
string_value:
proud
+ noun clause 262 (6a)
proud of 236(2)
+ to-infinitive 123(5)
prove
clause patterns 9(1), 11(1)
it proved 50 (5c)
+ noun clause 262(1c, 1d)
passive patterns 109
there proved 50(4)
+ to-infinitive 120(2)
proven 301
provide. ..for/with 234(3)
provided/providing 259(4)
public: group noun 156(4)
publicly 292(5) Note
pull
clause pattern 11(1)
pull down 232(2)
pull off 232(2)
pull up 232(3)
pump up 232(2)
punctuation 56
punish...for + gerund 132(3), 234(2)
purpose 252
with for 126(6), 252(3)


key: chroma:document
string_value:
purpose 252
with for 126(6), 252(3)
noun + noun 147(6)
possessive form 146(4a)
with to-infinitive 119(1)
purpose in/of + gerund 132(7)
push: clause pattern 11(1)
put
clause pattern 11(2)
put off 121(1), 232(lb, 2)
put on 232(2)
putout232(2)
put up 232(3)
put up with 132(2), 235(2)
puzzled/ing 203
pyjamas 155(4) INDEX
qualifier (phrase/clause after noun) 148,
272(2)
quantifier
summary 176
overview 182
comparison 220
after determiner 143(3c)
modified 212(8)
patterns 178(1)


key: chroma:document
string_value:
modified 212(8)
patterns 178(1)
+ relative clause 273(5) Note
quarter 193(1), 195(1)
question 21
intonation 54(2b)
passive 105(2)
reporting 269
short question 38(3)
question about/of + gerund 132(7)
question mark 56(1)
question phrase 28
question tag 34
after imperative 19(4)
after short answer 29(2f)
US 303(4)
question word
overview 27
details 25, 26
modified 26(6)
with preposition 25(3)
as subject/object 25(1, 2), 269(2) Note a
+ to-infinitive 125
see also wh-clause
quick
and quickly 207(4)


key: chroma:document
string_value:
see also wh-clause
quick
and quickly 207(4)
+ to-infinitive 123(5) Note c
quit + gerund 121(1)
quite
with a/an 212(4)
meanings 212(5c)
+ quantifier 212(8b, 8c)
and rather 212(5b)
stress 212(5a)
with verb 212(7a)
quotation marks 56(4)
radio 160(5) Note
rain: uncountable noun 144(4b)
raise and rise 8(3) Note
rare + to-infinitive 123(1)
rarely211(l,2)
negative word 17(4)
rather
with a/an 212(4) Note a
+ comparative 212(2)
or rather 216(2)
+ quantifier 212(8b)
and quite 212(5b)


key: chroma:document
string_value:
+ quantifier 212(8b)
and quite 212(5b)
+ too 212(1a) Note i, 212(8) Note
with verb 212(7a)
rather than
+ adjective 218(2a) Note d
+ infinitive 127(2)
negative meaning 17(3) Note a
reach + object 233(4)
reaction to 237(2h)
read
clause patterns 8(2), 10(5)
read out 232(2)
read over 232(2)
verb of reporting 265(2)
ready
and due 113 (2b) Note
ready for 126(2), 236(4)
ready for + gerund 132(4, 5a)
with to-infinitive 123(5), 126(2), 132(5a)
real
adverb 212(1 a) Note d
comparison 218(4a)


key: chroma:document
string_value:
real
adverb 212(1 a) Note d
comparison 218(4a)
position 200(3)
really 212(1a, 7a)
emphatic 51 (2a) Note
repeated 51(1b) Note
reason 251
participle clause 139(4)
reason
reason for 237(2f)
reason for + gerund 132(7)
reason that/why 279
reassure: verb of reporting 265(2, 3)
rebel: stress 287(2)
recent: comparison 218(4b)
recently with present perfect/past 65(5a)
reciprocal pronoun 186(4)
recognize + noun clause 262(1c)
recommend
+ noun clause 262(1c, 1d)
passive pattern 109(1)
performative 16(3)


key: chroma:document
string_value:
passive pattern 109(1)
performative 16(3)
verb of reporting 265(2), 270(2c)
+ subjunctive 242(1)
with to-infinitive 121(1) Note f, 122(2a)
record
verb of reporting 265(2)
stress 287(2)
reduced clause: see abbreviated clause
reduction in/of 237(2e)
refer to 233(2)
reflexive pronoun 186(1, 2)
refrain from 233(2)
refund: stress 287(2)
refusal
won't 71(5), 257(3d)
wouldn't 80(2)
refusal + to-infinitive 124(1a)
refuse
passive pattern 108(3)
performative 16(3)
verb of reporting 265(2), 270(2b)


key: chroma:document
string_value:
verb of reporting 265(2), 270(2b)
+ to-infinitive 121(1)
regard
regard ...as 122(2c) Note c, 234(1)
regard for 237(2h)
regret: if only 241 (2d)
regret
+ gerund/to-infinitive 121 (3b)
+ noun clause 262(1)
passive pattern 109(1)
regular and irregular verbs 299
related to 236(4) INDEX
relationship between/with 237(2c)
relative adverb 51(4b) Note e, 279
relative clause
summary 271
after superlative 221 (7)
pattern with there 50(3)
relax: not reflexive 186(2d)
relaxed/ing 203


key: chroma:document
string_value:
relax: not reflexive 186(2d)
relaxed/ing 203
relief: countable 144(5e)
reluctance + to-infinitive 124(1a)
reluctant with to-infinitive 123(5), 126(2)
rely on 233(2)
+ gerund 132(2), 233(2)
remain
linking verb 9(1)
there remains 50(4)
remains (noun) 154(1a)
remark
+ noun clause 262(1c, 1d)
verb of reporting 265 (2)
remember
remember ...as 234(2)
+ object + gerund 131(5)
+ gerund/to-infinitive 121 (3a)
+ noun clause 262(1c)
+ object 233(4)
not reflexive 186(2d)
remember what to do 125(2)
remind


key: chroma:document
string_value:
remember what to do 125(2)
remind
remind... about/of 234(5a) Note b
remind ...of + gerund 132(3),
132(5b)Note b
verb of reporting 265(2, 3), 270(2c, 2h)
+ object + to-infinitive 122(2a),
132(5b)Note b
reminders: imperative 19(3, 4b)
repeat: verb of reporting 265(2)
repeating words
for emphasis 37(2), 51 (1b) Note
in speech 53(1a)
replace... with 234(2)
replacing words 36
reply
+ noun clause 262(1c)
verb of reporting 265(2)
reply question (echo tag) 35(2)
report


key: chroma:document
string_value:
reply question (echo tag) 35(2)
report
report about/on 233(3a) Note b, 237(2i),
262(5) Note
+ noun clause 262(1c, 1d)
passive patterns 109
verb of reporting 265(2)
+ object + to-infinitive 122 (2c)
reported speech 263
reporting orders 270
reporting questions 269
republican names 171(1)
request (noun)
request for 237 (2g)
+ to-infinitive 124(1a)
request (verb)
+ noun clause 262(1c)
passive pattern 109(1)
performative 16(3)
+ object 233(4)
verb of reporting 265(2)
+ subjunctive 242(1)


key: chroma:document
string_value:
verb of reporting 265(2)
+ subjunctive 242(1)
+ object + to-infinitive 122(2a)
requests
can 22(2), 97(2b)
conditional 256(2)
could 97 (2b)
I request 16(3)
intonation 54 (2b)
might 97(1d)
reported 270(1)
with some 179(1d)
will 71(6), 99(2), 257(3d)
would 99 (2), 257 (4e)
require
+ gerund 113(1)
+ that-clause 122 (2b) Note a
+ object + to-infinitive 122(2b)
required to 92(1a) Note c
research (noun)
research into 237(2j), 262(5) Note
uncountable 144(4b)
research (verb): research into 233(2)


key: chroma:document
string_value:
research (verb): research into 233(2)
resemble
+ object 233(4)
not passive 104(6b)
state verb 62(1)
resent with gerund 121(1), 131(5)
reserve with for 10(5)
resigned to + gerund 132(6)
resist with gerund 121(1), 131(5)
resort to 233(2)
+ gerund 132(2, 6)
respect for 237 (2h)
response question (echo tag) 35(2)
responsible
responsible for 132(4), 236(4)
position 201(2)
rest
and have a rest 87(2)
not reflexive 186(2d)
verb and noun 287(1)
restrictive relative clause: see identifying
result 247


key: chroma:document
string_value:
result 247
participle 139(5)
to-infinitive 119(2)
result
result from/in 233(2) Note f
there resulted 50(4)
resume + gerund 121(1)
reveal
+ noun clause 262(1c, 1d)
passive patterns 109
+ object + to-infinitive 122(2c)
revise for 233 (2)
rhetorical question 22(3)
rice: uncountable 144(4b)
rich: the rich 204(1b)
riches 154(1a)
ride: verb and noun 87(2), 287(1)
ridiculous: quite ridiculous 212(5c)
right
+ comparison 218(4a)
+ preposition 212(6)
quite right 212(5c)
and rightly 207 (4) Note b


key: chroma:document
string_value:
quite right 212(5c)
and rightly 207 (4) Note b
+ to-infinitive 123(5)
PAGE 435 INDEX
ring
ring back 232(2)
with/without object 8(3), 233(3c) Note
ring off 232(2)
ring true 9(1)
ring up 232(1a) Note
rise
rise in/of 237(2e)
and raise 8(3) Note
risk with gerund 121(1), 131(5)
rob and steal 234(3)
roofs 296(2) Note
roll with/without object 8(3)
room for 237(l)
round 225(1)
US 306(1)
rub out 232(2)
rubbish: uncountable 144(4b)
rude with to-infinitive 123(1), 126(5)
run
+ complement 9(1)


key: chroma:document
string_value:
run
+ complement 9(1)
and have a run 87(2)
run into 233(2)
with/without object 8(1)
run out 232 (2)
run out of 235(2)
run over 232(3)
+ participle 138(1)
verb and noun 287(1)
's (possessive) 146
see also possessive form of noun
's (short form) 55 (2b) Note a
s-form 58
agreement 151(2)
pronunciation 290(3)
spelling 64(1) Note b
s-plural: see plural noun
sad+ to-infinitive 123(5)
safe
comparison 218(4a)
safe from 236(2)
with to-infinitive 123(1), 126(2)
safes 296(2) Note


key: chroma:document
string_value:
safes 296(2) Note
sail with/without object 8(3)
saleable 292 (3) Note
salmon: plural 297
same
the same as 221(1), 236(4)
the same replacing words 43 (5b)
with the 160(4), 200(1) Note, 221(1) Note
in the same way 216(2)
satisfaction with + gerund 132(7)
satisfied
+ to-infinitive 132(5a)
satisfied with 236(2)
satisfied with+ gerund 132(4, 5a)
save
with for 10(5)
save... from 234 (2)
with gerund 121(1), 131(5)
savings 154(1b)
say
passive patterns 109
verb of reporting 266
say so/not 43(3b, 3c)


key: chroma:document
string_value:
verb of reporting 266
say so/not 43(3b, 3c)
+ that 264 (2a)
+ to-infinitive 270(1a) Note c
scales 155(4)
scarcely 212(7a)
negative word 17(4)
scared of 236(2)
scarfs/scarves 296(2) Note
scenery: uncountable 144(4b)
scheme
scheme for 237 (2f)
+ to-infinitive 124(1b)
school
group noun 156(4)
without the 168
scissors 155(4)
Scot, Scottish 288 (2d) Note b
scream: verb of reporting 265(2)
sea without the 168(4)
search
and search for 233(4) Note c
verb and noun 287(1)
seaside with the 160(5), 168(4)


key: chroma:document
string_value:
seaside with the 160(5), 168(4)
season with/without article 169(2)
seat and sit 87 (2)
see
see about 233(2)
action/state 62(7) Note a
and can see 62(7)
see you do/doing it 140(1)
+ noun clause 262(1)
without object 8(2)
see off 232(2)
passive patterns 109, 110
see to 233(2)
seeing (that) 251(1)
seek
+ object 233(4)
+ to-infinitive 121(1)
seem
seem as if 50 (5c)
it seems + clause 50(5c)
linking verb 9(1)
not passive 104(6b)
it seems so/not 43(3b-3d)
state verb 62(1, 5)
there seems 50(4) Note


key: chroma:document
string_value:
state verb 62(1, 5)
there seems 50(4) Note
+ to-infinitive 120(2)
+ to-infinitive or complement 9(1) Note a,
303(1)
seldom 211(1,2)
negative word 17(4)
self, selves 186
sell
sell off 232(2)
passive 108(3)
with to 10(5)
semi-colon 56 (2a)
send
send away/off for 235 (2)
clause patterns 10, 11(1)
send for 233(2)
passive 108(3)
senses: see verb of perception
sensible with to-infinitive 123(1, 5), 126(5)
PAGE 436 PAGE 437 INDEX
sentence 2(3)
sentence adverb 214-216
sentence relative 278


key: chroma:document
string_value:
sentence adverb 214-216
sentence relative 278
sentence types 15
separate with/without object 8(3)
sequence of tenses 241
series 154(3)
serious about 236(4)
set
set off 232(2)
set up 232(1b)
set to 78(1b) Note
several 177 (4b), 182
several times 211(3) Note
sex: see gender
shake with/without object 8(3)
shall
future 71
indirect speech 268(3c) Note b
in tag 34(6)
US 303(8)
weak form 55(1b)
shame: countable 144(5e)
shan't 71(2) Note
share
share out 232(2)
share... with 234(2)
shave


key: chroma:document
string_value:
share
share out 232(2)
share... with 234(2)
shave
get shaved 107 (2)
not reflexive 186(2e)
she 184(1, 3)
with short form 55 (2b)
weak form 55(1b)
sheep: plural 297
sheer: position 200(1)
sheet of 144(3b)
shelf, shelves 296(2)
shine with/without object 8(3)
shingles 154(2)
ship (verb) 287(3)
shocked at/by 236(2)
shopping
do the/go shopping 138(2)
uncountable 144(4b)
short additions 43(1)
short answers 29(2, 4)
with so 43(4)
short form 55
short of 236(4)
short question 38(3)
shorts 155(4)
should


key: chroma:document
string_value:
short question 38(3)
shorts 155(4)
should
in condition 258(1), 258(3)
after in case 259(7)
indirect speech 268 (3c)
obligation 93(1)
probability 96
instead of subjunctive 242(2)
US 303(8)
weak form 55(1b)
I would/should 99(4)
shout
shout at/to 233(3c) Note c
shout out 232(2)
verb of reporting 265(2)
show
+ noun clause 262(1c, 1d)
passive patterns 108(3), 109
with to 10(5)
+ object + to-infinitive 122(2c)
show you what to do 125(2)
shower and have a shower 87(2)
shrunken 301


key: chroma:document
string_value:
shower and have a shower 87(2)
shrunken 301
shut with/without object 8(3)
shyly 294(1) Note b
sick
position 305(1) Note
the sick 204(1b)
side of 147(5f) Note b
sightseeing: uncountable 144(4b)
silly
comparison 218(4b)
with to-infinitive 123(1, 5), 126(2, 5)
similar to 221(1) Note, 236(4)
simple: comparison 218(4b)
simple gerund 129
simple infinitive 116(1)
simple passive participle 135(4)
simple past: see past simple
simple present: see present simple
simple sentence 7
since


key: chroma:document
string_value:
simple sentence 7
since
conjunction of reason 251(1)
conjunction of time 250(1)
and/or227(5)
+ gerund 132 (8a)
with present perfect/past 65(5d)
since when 25(3) Note b
sincere: comparison 218(4b)
sing with/without object 8(2)
single: every single 178(5b) Note b
singular and plural: agreement 150
singular noun
without article 167
in compound 147(4), 155(2) Note, 283(3),
304(2)
in generalization 162(2, 3)
ending in s 154(3)
sit
+ adverbial 9(2)
sit down 186(2d)
and have a seat 87(2)


key: chroma:document
string_value:
sit down 186(2d)
and have a seat 87(2)
+ participle 138(1)
there sits 50 (4)
skill at 237(2j)
sleep: verb and noun 87(2, 4), 287(1)
slice of 144(3b)
slide with/without object 8(3)
slightly 212(1a) Note f, 212(7c)
+ comparative 212(2)
slow
and slowly 207(4)
+ to-infinitive 123(5) Note c
slow down 232(2)
slyly 294(1) Note b
smash with/without object 8(3)
smell
action/state 62(3)
and can smell 62(7)
linking verb 9(1)
+ object + participle 140(1) INDEX PAGE 438
smile
and give a smile 87(2)


key: chroma:document
string_value:
smile
and give a smile 87(2)
verb of reporting 265(2)
verb and noun 287(1)
smooth (verb) 287(4)
snap: verb of reporting 265(2)
so
overview 43(6)
+ adjective 212(4), 221(3)
so as to 252(1)
so far/long 210(4b)
so far with present perfect 65(2)
so long as 259(4)
so many/much 177(1b), 212(8a)
and such 212(4)
so that 252(2)
so... that 247(3)
society: group noun 156(4)
soften with/without object 8(3)
sole: position 200(1)
solution to 237(2f)
some 179
agreement 153(3)
and articles 164, 166


key: chroma:document
string_value:
some 179
agreement 153(3)
and articles 164, 166
in compound 179(1f)
in phrase of frequency 211(3)
+ gerund 133(1), 138(2c)
some more 180(2)
and one, it, they 188(4)
some people and someone 189(5) Note
+ singular noun 179(5)
some things and something 189(5) Note
weak form 179(3)
somebody 189 (1a)
agreement 189(5)
someone 189 (1a)
agreement 189(5)
+ relative clause 272(2)Note
someplace 305 (3)
something 189(1b)
or something 53(1c)
sometimes 211(1, 2)
somewhat 212(1a) Note f, 212(7c)


key: chroma:document
string_value:
somewhat 212(1a) Note f, 212(7c)
+ comparative 212(1a) Note f, 212(2)
somewhere 189(1c)
soon: comparative 219(1) Note
sorry
+ noun clause 262 (6a)
+ preposition 236(2) Note c
+ preposition + gerund 132(5b) Note h
+ to-infinitive 123(5), 132(5b) Note h
sort of 144(3e)
in speech 53(1c)
what sort of 28(1)
sort out 232(2)
sound
clause patterns 8(3), 9(1)
verb and noun 287(1)
spacecraft: plural 297
spare: clause pattern 10(5)
speak
and can speak98(l) Note a
with/without object 8(2)
speak out 232(2)


key: chroma:document
string_value:
with/without object 8(2)
speak out 232(2)
verb of reporting 265(2) Note
special styles 45
species 154(3)
spectacles 155(4)
sped/speeded 300 Note m
spelling in US 308
spelling of endings 289
spend
passive pattern 110(2)
spend... on 234(1)
spend time doing 140(3)
split infinitive 117(1) Note
split... into 234(2)
spoken English 53
sport: countable/uncountable 144(5d)
spread with/without object 8(3)
staff: group noun 156(4)
stand
+ adverbial 9(2)
and be 84(4)
can't stand 121(1) Note a


key: chroma:document
string_value:
and be 84(4)
can't stand 121(1) Note a
stand for 233(2)
with/without object 8(3)
stand out 232(2)
+ participle 138(1)
there stands 50(4)
stand up 186(2d)
stand up for/to 235(2)
start
get started 107(2)
+ gerund/to-infinitive 121(2)
with/without object 8(2, 3)
start off 232(2)
+ object + participle 140(2)
state
+ noun clause 262(1c, 1d)
passive pattern 109(1)
verb of reporting 265(2)
state verb 62
passive 104(6b)
statement 16
statistics 154(2)
stay: linking verb 9
steal and rob 243 (3)


key: chroma:document
string_value:
stay: linking verb 9
steal and rob 243 (3)
step up 232(2)
stick of 144 (3b)
stick to 233 (2)
still
= but 246(2) Note
manner 207(3)
with present perfect 65(2)
time 210(2b)
stimuli 298(3)
stone: countable/uncountable 144(5a)
stop
stop... from 132(3), 234(2)
with gerund 121(3e), 131(5), 132(3)
negative meaning 17(4) Note a
with/without object 8(3)
with to-infinitive 121 (3e)
straight: adverb 207(3)
strange + to -infinitive 123(1)
street names 171 (2f)
strengthen with/without object 8(3)


key: chroma:document
string_value:
strengthen with/without object 8(3)
stress 54(1)
compound noun 147(3, 5)
emphatic 51(1)
on modal verb 91 (1) Note b INDEX
with phrasal/prepositional verb 231 (4c)
with quite 212(5a)
word both verb and noun 287(2)
strike... as 234(2)
+ gerund 132(3)
strip off 232(2)
strong: the strong 204 (1b)
strong and weak forms 55
student of 237(2j)
study with/without object 8(2)
stuff
in speech 53(1c)
uncountable 144(4b)
stupid
comparison 218(4b)
with to-infinitive 123(1), 126(2, 5)
stupidly 215(2)


key: chroma:document
string_value:
stupidly 215(2)
style: special styles 45
sub clause 239(2), 240
of future time 77
tenses 241
subject 5
agreement with object 157
agreement with verb 150
of co-ordinate clause 239(1a)
of gerund 130(2)
of imperative 19(5)
leaving out 42(1)
linking with previous text 47(2), 48
of participle 136(2)
prepositional phrase 208(3) Note
question word 25(2)
and verb 6(2), 12(2)
subject complement 9(1), 11 (1)
US 303(1)
subject pronoun 184(1)
subject relative pronoun 273(2)
subjunctive 242
US 303(12)


key: chroma:document
string_value:
subjunctive 242
US 303(12)
were in if-clause 258(2)
expressing wish 19(6c) Note
subordinate clause: see sub clause
substitute for 237 (2c)
substitution 36
succeed in 233 (2)
+ gerund 132(2)
success
success in + gerund 132(7)
+ preposition 237 (2j) Note
successful in 236(4)
+ gerund 132(4)
such 212(4)
such a lot 212(8b)
such... that 247(3)
suffer from 233(2)
suffix 285
suggest
+ finite clause 122(2a) Note b
+ gerund 121(1)
and make a suggestion 87(2)
+ noun clause 262(1c, 1d)


key: chroma:document
string_value:
+ noun clause 262(1c, 1d)
+ passive clause 112(2c) Note
passive pattern 109(1)
performative 16(3)
verb of reporting 265(2), 270(2d), 270(2g)
+ subjunctive 242(1)
suggestions
answering 29 (2a)
asking for 71(7)
can 16(2), 97(2a)
conditional 256(2)
could 97(2a)
imperative 19(3)
intonation 54 (2b)
let's 19(6a)
shall 22(2), 71(7)
what/how about 28(2)
with why 30(1c)
suit
+ object 233(4)
not passive 104(6b)
sum up 232 (2)
sunken 301
sunrise with/without article 169(6)
superior to 221(1) Note, 236(4)


key: chroma:document
string_value:
superior to 221(1) Note, 236(4)
superlative
of adjective 218
of adverb 219
after among 225(3b)
modified 212(3)
patterns 221(7)
adjective with the 160(4)
+ to-infinitive 277
supernatural: the supernatural 204 (2a)
supply with preposition 234(3) Note
suppose
conditional 241(3), 259(5)
+ noun clause 262(1b, 1c)
passive patterns 109
+ present/past 241 (3)
verb of reporting 265 (2)
suppose so 43(3)
+ subjunctive 242(3)
+ object + to-infinitive 122(2c)
supposed to 92(3)
supposing241(3), 259(5)
sure


key: chroma:document
string_value:
supposed to 92(3)
supposing241(3), 259(5)
sure
Are you sure? 43 (3b)
be sure to 78(2) Note, 95(1) Note b
comparison 218(4a)
+ noun clause 262(6), 265(5)
sure of 236(4), 262(5) Note
quite sure 212(5c)
sure what to do 125(2)
+ will 74(1)
surprise
echo tag 35(2) Note b
negative question 30(1a)
surprise at+ gerund 132(7)
surprised 203
surprised at+ gerund 132(4, 5a)
comparison 218 (4b)
with double negative 17(5) Note
+ noun clause 262(6)
+ preposition 236(2)
+ to-infinitive 123(5), 132(5a)


key: chroma:document
string_value:
+ to-infinitive 123(5), 132(5a)
surprising 203
surroundings 154(1a)
suspect
+ noun clause 262 (1c)
suspect so/not 43(3)
stress 287(2)
PAGE 439 INDEX
swear
+ noun clause 262(1c, 1d)
verb of reporting 265(2)
+ to-infinitive 121(1)
swim: verb and noun 87, 287(1)
swing with/without object 8(3)
switch ojf/on 232 (2)
sympathy for 237 (2h)
tag 34, 35
see also question tag, echo tag
take
take after 233(2)
take care of 234(4)
take down 232(2)
empty verb 87
take... for 234 (2)
take notice of 234(4)


key: chroma:document
string_value:
take... for 234 (2)
take notice of 234(4)
take off 232(2)
take on 232(3)
take over 232(3)
there took place 50(4)
with to 10(5)
take to + gerund 132(6)
take up 232(3)
take... up on 235(3)
talk
talk about 132(2), 233(2)
have a talk 87(2)
talk over 232(2)
and say 265 (2) Note
talk to/with 306(4)
verb and noun 287(1)
talking of 216(2)
task of + gerund 132(7)
taste
action/state 62(3,7)
taste for 237(2g)
linking verb 9(1)
tax on 237(1)
teach
teach you how to 125(2)
+ noun clause 262(1c, 1d)


key: chroma:document
string_value:
teach you how to 125(2)
+ noun clause 262(1c, 1d)
passive 108(3)
with to 10(5)
+ object + to-infinitive 122(2b)
team: group noun 156(4)
tear with/without object 8(3)
teeth 296(1)
telephone numbers 191(5)
telephone (verb) 287(3)
television 160(5) Note
tell
with about 132(5b) Note b
+ noun clause 262(1d)
passive 108(3)
verb of reporting 266
reporting orders 270(1)
tell you so 43(3b)
tell you to/how to 125(2) Note
telling the time 195(1)
temperature 196(5)
temporal clause: see clause of time


key: chroma:document
string_value:
temporal clause: see clause of time
tend to 97(2e) Note, 120(2)
with there 50(4)
tense 61(1), 63
see also verb tense
tense change in indirect speech 268
terrible
with to-infinitive 123(1), 126(2)
not with very 212(1a) Note a
terribly 212(1a, 7c)
terrific
+ to-infinitive 123(1)
not with very 2l2(1a) Note a
terrified of 236(2)
than 221(4), 221(5, 6)
+ adjective 199(5b), 218(2a) Note d
+ gerund 132(1b)
weak form 55(1b)
thank
thank... for 132(3), 234(2)
performative 16(3)


key: chroma:document
string_value:
thank... for 132(3), 234(2)
performative 16(3)
verb of reporting 265(2), 270 (2a)
thankful with gerund/to-infinitive 132(5a)
thanks (noun) 154(1a)
that
that day 65(3a), 227(2b), 267(2)
demonstrative 175
do that 43 (2)
+ gerund 133(1)
relative pronoun 273(1), 279(2)
replacing clause 44(4)
with short form 55 (2b)
= so 212(1a) Note h
that way 43(5a)
weak form 55(1b)
that-clause
summary 260
in indirect speech 264 (2a)
after phrasal verb 231 (4a) Note b
subjunctive 242
the
summary 158


key: chroma:document
string_value:
subjunctive 242
the
summary 158
+ adjective 204
+ comparative 222(2)
replacing demonstrative 267(2) Note
+ gerund 133, 138(2b)
leaving out 42(3), 45
and noun on its own 165, 168
+ part of body 174(4) Note
+ place name 171
+ superlative 218(3)
their, theirs 174(3)
and his/her 184(5) Note a
them 184(1), 184(3c)
weak form 55(1b)
themselves 186
then 44(5)
and then 244(2)
after if-clause 259(3)
indirect speech 267(2)
with past 65 (3a)
there 44(5), 175 (4a)
+ be 50, 109(2) Note


key: chroma:document
string_value:
there 44(5), 175 (4a)
+ be 50, 109(2) Note
in front position 49(3b)
pattern with gerund 131 (2b)
and if 50(6)
pronunciation 50(2g)
in question tag 34(1) Note a PAGE 441 INDEX
with short form 55(2b)
+ to-infinitive 122(2b) Note b,
122(2c) Note d, 122(2d) Note b
therefore 247(1}
these 175
these days 227(2a) Note c
they 184(1a, 3c)
replacing demonstrative 175(4b) Note
people in general 185(4)
with short form 55(2b)
for single person 184(5)
replacing someone 34(1) Note c
thief, thieves 296(2)


key: chroma:document
string_value:
thief, thieves 296(2)
thing 204(2c)
in speech 53(1c)
the + adjective + thing 204(2c)
think
think about/of 132(2), 233(3b), 262(5)
Note
action/state 62(3)
clause pattern 11(1)
with negative 43 (3c), 262(1b)
+ noun clause 262(1c)
think out 232(2)
think over 232(2)
passive patterns 109
verb of reporting 265(2)
think so 43(3)
think what to do 125(2)
+ will 74(1)
thirsty: comparison 218(4b)
this 175
replacing clause 44(4)
+ gerund 133(1)
indirect speech 267(2)
phrase of time 227(2)


key: chroma:document
string_value:
indirect speech 267(2)
phrase of time 227(2)
this week with present perfect/past 65(5c)
those 175
though246(l)
= although 246(3)
thousand 191(1)
thousands of 191(3)
threat: conditional 256(2)
threaten
+ noun clause 262(1c)
verb of reporting 265(2), 270(2b, 2g)
+ to-infinitive 121(1)
through 225(1), 226(4)
+ gerund 132 (8a)
time (US) 306(3)
throughout 225(1) Note b
throw
passive 108(3)
with preposition 10(5), 234(5b) Note
thru 308(5)
thunder: uncountable 144(4b)
tidy
comparison 218(4b)


key: chroma:document
string_value:
tidy
comparison 218(4b)
tidy up 232(2)
tight and tightly 207(4)
tights 155(4)
till: see until
time: clock time 195(1)
see also clause of time
time
countable/uncountable 144(5c)
time for 237(l)
it's time+ clause 241(3a) Note a
+ to-infinitive 124(1b)
time adverbial: see adverbial of time
time of day 195(1)
time phrase without preposition 227(2)
times: see number of times
tin: countable/uncountable 144(5c)
tired 203
comparison 218(4b)
get tired 107(3)
tired of 236(2)
tiring: comparison 218(4b)


key: chroma:document
string_value:
tired of 236(2)
tiring: comparison 218(4b)
title
agreement 152(3)
and article 170
capital letter 56(6c, 6g)
to
after adjective 236(3), 236(4)
and at 225 (2b)
clock time 195(1)
in comment adverbial 215(3)
to do and to doing 132(6)
with give 10
with infinitive 115
replacing to-infinitive clause 39
place 225(1)
with say 266(3)
to school without the 168
to the + measurement 172(2)
and towards 226(5)
after verb 233(3c), 234(5b), 262(1d)
weak form 55(1b)
to-infinitive
summary 115


key: chroma:document
string_value:
weak form 55(1b)
to-infinitive
summary 115
to do and for doing 132(5)
to do and to doing 132(6)
passive 112, 114(3)
after passive 109(2), 110(1)
with passive meaning 113(2)
in relative clause 277
with subject there 50(2h)
verb + gerund/to-infinitive 121
toast: uncountable 144(4b)
today
indirect speech 267(2)
with present perfect/past 65(5c)
together with 244(3)
tolerate with gerund 121(1), 131(5)
tomatoes 290(2)
tomorrow: indirect speech 267(2)
too (= also) 244(1)
in short addition 43(1a)


key: chroma:document
string_value:
too (= also) 244(1)
in short addition 43(1a)
too (degree)
with a/an 212(4)
and enough 212(4)
too far/long 210(4b)
too many/much 177(1b), 180(1b) Note,
212(8a)
modified 212(1a) Note i, 212(8) Note
with to-infinitive 123(4), 126(3)
tooth, teeth 296(1) INDEX
top 147(5f) Note b, 226(3)
on top 0/225(1), 226(3)
on top of that 244(2)
totally 212(7a)
not with very212(1a) Note a
towards 225(1), 225(3b)
and to 226(5)
town without article 168(4)
traffic: uncountable 144(4b)
train: the train 160(5)


key: chroma:document
string_value:
train: the train 160(5)
train (verb) with to-infinitive 121(1), 122(2b)
transfer: stress 287(2)
transferred negative 262(1b)
transitive verb 8
translate into 234 (2)
transport: prepositions 228(5b)
transport
uncountable noun 144(4b)
stress 287(2)
travel
doubling of l 293(3) Note, 308(4)
and journey 87(2)
uncountable noun 144(4b)
troops 154(1a)
tropics 154(1a)
verb and noun 287(1)
trouble with 237(2k)
trousers 155(4)
true
comparison 218(4b)
quite true 212(5c)
truly 292(4) Note


key: chroma:document
string_value:
quite true 212(5c)
truly 292(4) Note
truth adverbial 214
clause 253(3)
in front position 49(1b)
truths 296(3)Note
try
+ gerund/to-infinitive 121 (3d)
have a try 87(2)
try on 232(2)
turn
clause patterns 8(3), 9(1), 11(1)
turndown 232(2)
turn into 234(2)
turn off 232 (2)
turn on 232(2)
turn out+ that-clause 50(5c)
turn out+ to-infinitive 50(4) Note, 120(1)
turn up 232(2)
tweezers 155(4)
twice 194
twilight with/without article 169(6) Note
two nouns together 147
types of condition 257


key: chroma:document
string_value:
two nouns together 147
types of condition 257
types of sentence 15
types of verb 7
typical of 236 (4)
ugly 207(2)
unattached participle 136(2) Note
uncountable noun 144
in generalization 162(1)
with/without the 165
under 225(1), 226(2c)
= less than 191(4)
prefix 284(1)
understand
couldn't understand 98(1) Note
+ object + gerund 131 (5)
+ noun clause 262(1c)
passive 104(6b), 109
verb of reporting 265(2)
state verb 62(1)
+ object + to-infinitive 122(2c)
understand what to do 125(2)


key: chroma:document
string_value:
understand what to do 125(2)
understandable + to-infinitive 123(1)
undertake
+ noun clause 262(1c)
+ to-infinitive 121(1)
underwear: uncountable 144(4b)
unemployed: the unemployed 204(1b)
unexpected: the unexpected 204(2b)
unexplained: the unexplained 204(2a)
union: group noun 156(4)
unite with/without object 8(3)
United States + singular verb 156(5) Note
university
without article 168(4), 304(4)
group noun 156(4)
US 304(4)
unknown
an unknown 204(1b) Note b
the unknown 204(2a)
unless 259(6)


key: chroma:document
string_value:
the unknown 204(2a)
unless 259(6)
unlike 228(6) Note
unreal condition 256(1), 257(4, 6)
unreal present/past 241 (3)
indirect speech 268(3b) Note c
until 227(6), 227(7b)
+ adjective 199(5c)
conjunction 250(1)
+ participle 139(3)
with past perfect 68(3c)
with present 77
unwell: position 200(2)
unwilling+ to-infinitive 123(5)
up 225(1)
in phrasal verb 232(2), 232(4)
up to
+ number 191(4)
place 226(5)
time 227(6a) Note c
up to you 228(1)
upper: position 200(1)
upset
upset about 236(2)


key: chroma:document
string_value:
upper: position 200(1)
upset
upset about 236(2)
position 200(2)
urge
+ noun clause 262(1c)
verb of reporting 265(2)
+ object + to-infinitive 122(2a)
us 184(1)
US English 302
PAGE 442 PAGE 443 INDEX
use (noun) + gerund 131(2a)
use (verb)
use.. .for with gerund 132(2),
252(3) Note a
+ object + to-infinitive 252(3) Note a
use up 232(2)
used to 100(2), 236(4)
+ gerund 132(6)
indirect speech 268(3c)
passive 106(1)
useful: comparison 218(4b)
useless
comparison 218(4b)
quite useless 212(5c)


key: chroma:document
string_value:
useless
comparison 218(4b)
quite useless 212(5c)
not with very 212(1a) Note a
usual
after as/than 199(5b)
+ to-infinitive 123(1)
utter: position of adjective 200(1)
verb 57
agreement with subject 150
formed from other words 285(4)
leaving out 41
verb forms 58
in conditional sentences 257
irregular 299
verb of perception
with can 62(7)
with participle/infinitive 140(1)
passive 110
verb of reporting 265
passive 109
in present simple 64(2f), 268(1a)
tense 268(1)
verb phrase 57


key: chroma:document
string_value:
tense 268(1)
verb phrase 57
verb tenses 61(1), 63
overview 69
in conditional clause 257
in indirect speech 268
passive 105, 114
in sub clause 241
verb types 7
verb + adverb (phrasal verb) 231(1)
verb + adverb + preposition 235
passive 105(3)
verb + adverbial 9(2)
verb + complement 9(1)
verb + gerund 131 (4)
reporting 270(2d)
and to-infinitive 121
verb + object 8
verb + object + adverb + preposition 235(3)
verb + object + adverbial 11(2)
verb + object + complement 11(1)


key: chroma:document
string_value:
verb + object + complement 11(1)
verb + object + gerund 131(5)
verb + object + object 10
verb + object + participle 140
verb + object + preposition 234
verb + object + preposition + gerund 132(3)
reporting 270(2f)
verb+ object + to-infinitive 122
reporting 270(2c)
verb + participle 138
verb + preposition 231(2), 233
see also prepositional verb
verb + preposition + gerund 132(2)
reporting 270(2e)
verb + to-infinitive 120
and gerund 121
reporting 270(2b)
verbal noun: see gerund
very212(1a)


key: chroma:document
string_value:
verbal noun: see gerund
very212(1a)
very many 177(1b), 212(8a)
very much 177(1b), 212(7d), 212(8a)
+ preposition 212(6)
repeated 51 (1b) Note
viewpoint adverbial 213(3)
violence: uncountable 144(4b)
visit
US 306(4)
verb and noun 87(2), 287(1)
vital+ to-infinitive 123(1)
vocative 56(6c) Note, 170(1)
vote
clause pattern 11(1)
vote for + gerund 132(2), 132(5a)
+ to-infinitive 132(5a)
vowel change 286
wait
can't wait + to-infinitive 121(1)
wait for 233(2)
wait for with to-infinitive 126(1)


key: chroma:document
string_value:
wait for with to-infinitive 126(1)
verb and noun 287(1)
wake up: not reflexive 186(2d)
walk: verb and noun 87(2), 287(1)
wallpaper (verb) 287(3)
want
clause pattern 11(1)
+ gerund 113(1)
passive 104(6b)
+ object + passive participle 140(5)
state verb 62(1)
+ to-infinitive 121 (3h)
+ object + to-infinitive 122(2d)
want to know 125(2), 265(2), 269(1)
and would like 99(3a)
war: countable/uncountable 144(5d)
warm (verb) 287(4)
warn
warn... about + gerund 132(3)
+ noun clause 262(1c, 1d)


key: chroma:document
string_value:
+ noun clause 262(1c, 1d)
performative 16(3) Note c
with preposition 234(5a)
verb of reporting 265(2), 270(2a, 2h),
270(2c, 2g)
+ object + to-infinitive 122(2a), 270(2c)
warning
conditional 256(2)
I warn you 16(3) Note c
imperative 19(3), 19(4b)
was 84(2)
agreement 151(3)
weak form 55(1b)
was able to and could 98(3)
was going to 80(1)
was to 80(3)
indirect speech 268(3d) INDEX PAGE 444
wash
get washed 107(2)
not reflexive 186(2e)
wash up 232(3)
verb and noun 87(2,4), 287(1)
waste


key: chroma:document
string_value:
verb and noun 87(2,4), 287(1)
waste
waste money/time + participle 140(3)
passive pattern 110(2)
watch
action verb 62(7) Note b
watch you do/doing 140(1)
watch out 232(3)
watch out for 235(2)
way
in a... way 207(2)
way of 237(2f)
the way (that) 253(2)
we 184(1), 184(2)
people in general 185(3)
with short form 55(2b)
weak form 55(1b)
weak form 55
weak: the weak 204(1b)
weaken with/without object 8(3)
wear
wear out 232(2)
wear thin 9(1)
weather: uncountable 144(4b)
weekly 207(6), 211(4)
weigh


key: chroma:document
string_value:
weekly 207(6), 211(4)
weigh
action/state 62(3)
passive 104(6b)
weight 196(3)
welcome to 236(4)
well 207(7)
comparison 218(2b), 219(2)
position of adjective 200(2), 305(1)
Well,... 53(1b)
went (past of go) 300
were 84 (2)
agreement 151(3)
subjunctive 242(3), 258(2, 3)
weak form 55(1b)
wet (verb) 287(4)
wh-clause 260
after phrasal/prepositional verb
231(4a) Note b
in reported question 269(1a)
after say/tell 269(3)
wh-question 24(2), 25
intonation 54(2b)
wh-word: see question word
what


key: chroma:document
string_value:
intonation 54(2b)
wh-word: see question word
what
agreement 153(4)
pattern for emphasis 51(4)
in exclamation 20(1), 35(1) Note a
what kind of 28(1), 144(3e), 198(1) Note a
what... like 26(4) Note, 198(1) Note a
in negative question 30(1d)
in question phrase 28(1)
question word 26(1,2), 27, 35(1) Note a
relative pronoun 280
with short form 55 (2b)
+ to-infinitive 125
and which 26(2)
what about 28(2)
+ gerund 132(8a)
what if 259(5)
+ present/past 241 (3b)
whatever
in emphatic question 26(6c)


key: chroma:document
string_value:
whatever
in emphatic question 26(6c)
= no matter what 254(1)
relative 281
what's more 244(2)
whatsoever 17(6b) Note b
when
+ adjective 199 (5c)
conjunction 250
and if 259(1)
+ participle 139(3)
+ present 77
question word 27
relative adverb 279
when's 55(2b)
whenever
conjunction 250(4b)
= no matter when 254(1)
+ participle 139(3)
where
conjunction 253(1)
question word 27
relative adverb 279
where's 55 (2b)
whereas 246(5)
wherever 254(1)
whether
in noun clause 33, 261(1), 262(3) Note


key: chroma:document
string_value:
whether
in noun clause 33, 261(1), 262(3) Note
whether... or 259(8)
whether or not 269(1b) Note
in reported question 269(1b)
+ to-infinitive 125(1) Note b
which
agreement 153(4)
in negative question 30(1d)
pronoun relating to clause 278
question word 26(1,2), 27
relative pronoun 273(1), 274(2), 278
and what 26(2)
and who (relative) 273(1)
whichever
= no matter which 254(1)
relative 281
while
= but 246(5)
conjunction 250(1)
and during 227(4c)
+ participle 139(3)
with past continuous 66(2b)


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+ participle 139(3)
with past continuous 66(2b)
+ present 77
whisper: verb of reporting 265(2)
who
agreement 153(4)
in negative question 30(1d)
question word 26(2), 27
relative pronoun 273(1), 274(2)
with short form 55 (2b)
as subject/object 25(2)
and which (relative) 156(2), 273(1)
and whom 26(3) INDEX
whoever
in emphatic question 26(6c)
= no matter who 254(1)
relative 281
whole 178(3)
whom
question word 26(3)
relative pronoun 273(3b, 4b), 274(2)
whose
question word 26(1), 27


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whose
question word 26(1), 27
relative pronoun 274(2), 275
why
in negative question 30(1b, 1c)
without question form 26(5)
question word 27, 251(1) Note b
relative adverb 279
wife, wives 296(2)
will
and be going to 74
certainty 95
in conditionals 257(3)
future 71
habits 100(1)
indirect speech 268(3c)
passive 105(1d)
weak form 55(1b)
will be able to 98(2c)
will be doing 75
will have been doing79 Note c
will have done 79
willing
comparison 218(4b)
+ noun clause 262 (6a)


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willing
comparison 218(4b)
+ noun clause 262 (6a)
with to-infinitive 123(5), 126(2)
+ subjunctive 242(1)
willingness: will 71(5), 257 (3d)
willingness + to-infinitive 124(1a)
win with/without object 8(2)
wipe out 232(2)
wise: comparison 218(4a)
wish
wish for 233(2), 237(2g)
+ noun clause 262(1c)
state verb 62(1)
+ to-infinitive 121(1), 124(1a)
+ object + to-infinitive 122 (2c)
verb and noun 287(1)
verb after wish 241(2), 242(3)
with 228(2)
agreement 152(4)
along/together with 244(3)


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agreement 152(4)
along/together with 244(3)
and between 237 (2c)
and by 228(5)
condition 259(4) Note c
+ gerund 132(8a)
in participle clause 139(4c)
possession 85(1) Note b
within
place 225(1) Note b
time 227(3) Note b
without
do/go without 233(2)
+ gerund 132(8a)
negative meaning 17(4) Note b
woman as suffix 285(3e) Note b
women 296(1)
wolf, wolves 296(2)
wonder
countable noun 144(5e)
+ noun clause 262(1c), 262(5) Note
not reflexive 186(2d)
verb of reporting 265(2), 269(1)


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verb of reporting 265(2), 269(1)
wonder what to do 125(2)
wonderful with to-infinitive 123(1), 126(2)
won't 71(1)
word: have a word 87(2)
word-building 282
word classes 3
word endings 6(1), 289
word formation 282
word order
order of adjectives 202
position of adjectives 199-201
adverbials 208
emphatic pronoun 186(3)
front position 49
and information 47
overview of inversion 49(4)
main and sub clause 249(2, 3)
position of not 17(2, 3)
in noun phrase 143(2d)
two objects 10
with participle 137(2)


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two objects 10
with participle 137(2)
participle clause of time 139(1c) Note
phrasal verbs 231(3)
preposition at end 25(3), 117(2), 273(4)
in reported question 269(2)
with verb of reporting 265(4)
in sub clause 239(2b)
subject-verb 6(2), 12(2)
in verb phrase 60
work
without article 168(4)
countable/uncountable noun
144(4b) Note d
do some work 87(2)
work of + gerund 132(7)
work on 232(2)
work out 232(2)
work out what to do 125(2)
works (noun) 154(3)
worried about
+ gerund 132(4)


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works (noun) 154(3)
worried about
+ gerund 132(4)
+ noun clause 262(5) Note
worry
worry about + gerund 132(2, 7)
+ noun clause 262(1)
not reflexive 186(2d)
worse, worst218(2b), 219(2)
fear the worst 204(2b)
worth + gerund 131 (2a) Note b
would
in conditionals 257(4, 6), 257(5b)
indirect speech 268(3c)
past habits 100(1)
past of will 80(2), 95(5), 100(1)
short form 55(2b)
unreal situation 99
weak form 55(1b)
after wish 241(2a)
PAGE 445 INDEX
would have done in conditional 257(6)


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would have done in conditional 257(6)
would have to 268 (3d) Note
would like
in conditional 257(4e)
and Iike39(2) Note, 99(3a), 121(2) Note a
+ object + passive participle 140(5)
+ to-infinitive 121(2) Note a
+ object + to-infinitive 122(2d)
would love/hate
+ object + passive participle 140(5)
+ to-infinitive 121(2) Note a
+ object + to-infinitive 122(2d)
would prefer
+ object + passive participle 140(5)
+ object + to-infinitive 122(2d)
would rather 99 (3b)
with present/past 241(3a)


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would rather 99 (3b)
with present/past 241(3a)
with were 242(3)
would sooner 99(3b) Note
write
write down 232(2)
+ noun clause 262(1c, 1d)
write out 232(2)
verb of reporting 265(2)
with to 10(5)
US 306(4)
written English 53(2)
wrong
comparison 218(4a)
and wrongly 207(4) Note b
quite wrong 2l2(5c)
with to-infinitive 123(1), 126(2, 5)
wrong with 236(4)
wrong with + gerund 132(4)
y and i: spelling 294
year without article 169(1)
yes
after negative question 30(3)
as question tag 34(1) Note f


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as question tag 34(1) Note f
yes/no question 24(1)
leaving out auxiliary 42(2)
as echo question 35(1) Note b
intonation 54(2b)
yes/no short answers 29(2)
yesterday
indirect speech 267(2)
with past 65(5a)
yet 2l0(2a)
= but 246(2) Note
with past 303 (6)
you 184(1)
and one 185(2a)
people in general 185(1)
with short form 55 (2b)
weak form 55(1b)
you know in speech 53(1c)
young
position 202(1a) Note b
the young 204(1b)
your 174(3)
weak form 55(1b)
yours 174(3)
yourself/selves 186
youths 296(3)


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yours 174(3)
yourself/selves 186
youths 296(3)
zero 191(5) Note, 196(5) Note
zero article (noun without article) 162(1),
164, 165, 167
PAGE 446


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INTRODUCTION TO JAVA 
PROGRAMMING 
Lecture Notes 
B.TECH 
(III YEAR – I SEM) 
(2021-22) 
 
Prepared by: 
 
Mrs. G.VAIDEHI, Assistant Professor 
 
 
Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
MALLA REDDY COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY  
(Autonomous Institution – UGC, Govt. of India) 
Recognized under 2(f) and 12 (B) of UGC ACT 1956 
(AffiliatedtoJNTUH,Hyderabad,ApprovedbyAICTE-AccreditedbyNBA&NAAC–‘A’Grade-ISO9001:2015Certified)


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Maisammaguda,Dhulapally(PostVia.Kompally),Secunderabad–500100,TelanganaState,India 
  MALLA REDDY COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING &TECHNOLOGY 
DEPARTMENT OF ECE 
 
 
 
Objectives: 
INTRODUCTION TO JAVA PROGRAMMING 
This subject aims to introduce students to the Java programming language. Upon 
successful completion of this subject, students should  be able  to create Java programs  that 
leverage the object-oriented features of the Java language, such as encapsulation, inheritance and


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polymorphism; use data types, arrays and other data collections; implement error-handling 
techniques using exception handling, create and event-driven GUI using Swingcomponents. 
 
UNIT-I 
OOP Concepts:-Data abstraction, encapsulation, inheritance, Benefits of Inheritance, 
Polymorphism, classes and objects, Procedural and object oriented programming paradigms. 
Java Programming - History of Java, comments, Data types, Variables, Constants, Scope and


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Lifetime of variables, Operators, Operator Hierarchy, Expressions, Type conversion and casting,  
Enumerated types, Control flow - block scope, conditional statements, loops, break and con tinue 
statements, simple java stand alone programs, arrays, console input and output, formatting output,  
constructors, methods, parameter passing, static fields and methods, access control, this reference,  
overloading methods and constructors, recursion, g arbage collection, building strings, exploring


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string class. 
 
UNIT – II 
Inheritance – Inheritance hierarchies super and sub classes, Member access rules, super 
keyword, preventing inheritance: final classes and methods, the Object class and itsmethods. 
Polymorphism – dynamic binding, method overriding, abstract classes and methods. 
Interfaces- Interfaces Vs Abstract classes, defining an interface, implement interfaces, accessing 
implementations through interface references, extending interface.


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Inner classes- Uses of inner classes, local inner classes, anonymous inner classes, static inner 
classes, examples. 
Packages- Defining, creating and accessing a package, Understanding CLASSPATH, importing 
packages. 
 
UNIT-III 
Exception handling - Dealing with errors, benefits of exception handling, the classification of  
exceptions- exception hierarchy, checked exceptions and unchecked exceptions, usage of try,


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catch, throw, throws and finally, rethrowing exceptions, exception specification, built in 
exceptions, creating own exception sub classes. 
Multithreading – Differences between multiple processes and multiple threads, thread states,  
creating threads, interrupting threads, thread priorities, synchronizing threads, inter-thread 
communication, producer consumer pattern,Exploring java.net and java.text. 
 
UNIT-IV


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UNIT-IV 
Applets – Concepts of Applets, differences between applets and applications, life cycle of an applet, 
types of applets, creating applets, passing parameters to applets. 
Event Handling: Events, Handling mouse and keyboard events, Adapter classes. 
Files- Streams- Byte streams, Character streams, Text input/output.  Files- Streams- Byte streams, Character streams, Text input/output, Binary input/output, random 
access file operations, File management using File class.. 
 
UNIT-V


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UNIT-V 
GUI Programming with Java – AWT class hierarchy, component, container, panel, window, frame, 
graphics. 
AWT controls: Labels, button, text field, check box, and graphics. 
Layout Manager – Layout manager types: border, grid and flow. 
Swing – Introduction, limitations of AWT, Swing vs AWT. 
 
TEXT BOOK: 
1. Java Fundamentals – A Comprehensive Introduction, Herbert Schildt and Dale Skrien, 
TMH. 
REFERENCE BOOKS:


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TMH. 
REFERENCE BOOKS: 
1. Java for Programmers, P.J.Deitel and H.M.Deitel, PEA (or) Java: How to Program , 
P.J.Deitel and H.M.Deitel,PHI 
2. Object Oriented Programming through Java, P. Radha Krishna, UniversitiesPress. 
3. Thinking in Java, Bruce Eckel,PE 
4. Programming in Java, S. Malhotra and S. Choudhary, Oxford UniversitiesPress. 
 
Course Outcomes: 
 
 An understanding of the principles and practice of object oriented analysis and design in


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the construction of robust, maintainable programs which satisfy theirrequirements; 
 A competence to design, write, compile, test and execute straightforward programs using a 
high levellanguage; 
 An appreciation of the principles of object orientedprogramming; 
 An awareness of the need for a professional approach to design and the importance of 
good documentation to the finishedprograms. 
 Be able to implement, compile, test and run Java programs comprising more thanone


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class, to address a particular softwareproblem. 
 Demonstrate the ability to use simple data structures like arrays in a Javaprogram. 
 Be able to make use of members of classes found in the Java API (such as the Mathclass).  MALLA REDDY COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING &TECHNOLOGY 
DEPARTMENT OF ECE 
 
 
INDEX 
 
S. No Unit Topic Page no 
1  
I OOP Concepts:- Data abstraction, encapsulation inheritance 1 
2  
I Benefits of Inheritance 2 
3 I Polymorphism, classes and objects 2


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3 I Polymorphism, classes and objects 2 
4 I Procedural and object oriented programming paradigms 3 
5 I Java Programming- History of Java 4 
6 I Comments, Data types, Variables, Constants 5-9 
7 I Scope and Lifetime of variables 10 
8 I Operators, Operator Hierarchy, Expressions 11-12 
9 I Type conversion and casting, Enumerated types 12-13 
10 I Control flow- block scope, conditional statements, loops, break 
and continue statements 13-14 
11 I Simple java stand alone programs, arrays 14-18


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12 I Console input and output, formatting output 18-19 
13 I Constructors, methods, parameter passing 19-20 
14 I Static fields and methods, access control, this reference, 21-30 
15 I Overloading methods and constructors, recursion, garbage 
collection, 30-34 
16 I Building strings, exploring string class. 34-36  S. No Unit Topic Page no 
17 II Inheritance – Inheritance hierarchies super and sub classes, 
Member access rules 37-40


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Member access rules 37-40 
18 II super keyword, preventing inheritance: final classes and 
methods, the Object class and its methods. 40-41 
19 
 
II Polymorphism – dynamic binding, method overriding, 41-42 
20 
 
II abstract classes and methods. 43 
21 II Interfaces- Interfaces Vs Abstract classes, defining an 
interface, implement interfaces 43-44 
22 II Accessing implementations through interface references, 
extendinginterface. 45


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extendinginterface. 45 
23 II Inner classes- Uses of inner classes, local inner classes 45-46 
24 
 
II Anonymous inner classes, static inner classes, examples. 46 
25 
 
II Packages- Defining, creating and accessing a package, 46-47 
26 
 
II Understanding CLASSPATH, importing packages. 47 
27 
 
III Exception handling- Dealing with errors, benefits of exception 
handling 48 
28 III The classification of exceptions- exception hierarchy, checked 
exceptions and unchecked exceptions 48-50


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exceptions and unchecked exceptions 48-50 
29 III Usage of try, catch, throw, throws and finally, 50-54 
30 III Rethrowing exceptions, exception specification, 54 
31 
 
III Built in exceptions, creating own exception sub classes. 
 
54 
32 
 
III Multithreading – Differences between multiple processes and 
multiple threads, thread states 
 
55-56 
33 III Creating threads, interrupting threads, thread priorities, 
synchronizing threads 56-59


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synchronizing threads 56-59 
34 III Inter-thread communication, producer consumer pattern 59 
35 III Exploring java.net and java.text. 60 
  S. No Unit Topic Page no 
36 IV Collection Framework in Java – Introduction to java 
collections, Overview of java collection framework, Generics 62 
37 IV Commonly used collection classes- Array List, Vector, Hash 
table, Stack, Enumeration, Iterator 63-71 
38 
 
IV String Tokenizer, Random, Scanner, Calendar and Properties. 71-76 
39


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39 
 
IV Files- Streams- Byte streams, Character streams, Text 
input/output, Binary input/output 77-82 
40 IV Random access file operations, File management using File 
class. 83-84 
41 IV Connecting to Database – JDBC Type 1 to 4 drivers, 
Connecting to a a database, 85-88 
 
42 
 
IV 
Querying a database and processing the results, updating data 
with JDBC. 89-94 
 
43 
 
V 
GUI Programming with Java- The AWT class hierarchy, 
Introduction to Swing, Swing Vs AWT, Hierarchy for Swing


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components 
95-100 
44 
 
V Containers – Jframe, JApplet, JDialog, JPanel 100-104 
45 V Overview of some Swing components – Jbutton, JLabel, 
JTextField, JTextArea, simple Swing applications, 104-108 
46 V Layout management – Layout manager types – border, grid and 
flow 109-111 
47 V Event Handling- Events, Event sources, Event classes, Event 
Listeners, 111-112 
48 V Relationship between Event sources and Listeners, Delegation 
event model, 112-113 
49


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event model, 112-113 
49 
 
V Handling a button click, Handling Mouse events, Adapter 
classes. 
 
114-116 
50 V Applets – Inheritance hierarchy for applets 118-119 
51 V Differences between applets and applications, Life cycle of an 
applet, 120 
52 V Passing parameters to applets, applet security issues. 121 
  JAVA PROGRAMMING Page 1  
MALLA REDDY COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING &TECHNOLOGY 
DEPARTMENT OF ECE 
Unit-1 
OOPs Concepts


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DEPARTMENT OF ECE 
Unit-1 
OOPs Concepts 
 
Object Oriented Programming is a paradigm that provides many concepts such as 
inheritance, data binding, polymorphism etc. 
 
Simula is considered as the first object-oriented programming language. The programming 
paradigm where everything is represented as an object is known as truly object-oriented 
programming language. 
 
Smalltalk is considered as the first truly object-oriented programming language.


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OOPs (Object Oriented Programming System) 
 
Object means a real word entity such as pen, chair, table etc.  Object-Oriented Programming is 
a methodology or paradigm to  design a program using classes and objects. It simplifies the  
software development and maintenance by providing someconcepts: 
 
o Object 
o Class 
o Inheritance 
o Polymorphism 
o Abstraction 
o Encapsulation 
 
Object 
 
Any entity that has state and behavior is known as an object. For example: chair, pen, table,


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keyboard, bike etc. It can be physical and logical. 
 
Class 
 
Collection of objects is called class. It is a logical entity. 
 
Inheritance 
 
When one object acquires all the properties and behaviours of parent object i.e. known as 
inheritance. It provides code reusability. It is used to achieve runtime polymorphism.  JAVA PROGRAMMING Page 2  
Polymorphism 
 
When one task is performed by different ways i.e. known as polymorphism. For example: to


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convince the customer differently, to draw something e.g. shape or rectangle etc. 
 
In java, we use method overloading and method overriding to achieve polymorphism. 
Another example can be to speak something e.g. cat speaks meaw, dog barks woof 
etc.Abstraction 
Hiding internal details and showing functionality is known as abstraction. For example: phone 
call, we don't know the internal processing. 
 
In java, we use abstract class and interface to achieve abstraction. 
 
Encapsulation


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Encapsulation 
 
Binding (or wrapping) code and data together into a single unit is known as encapsulation. 
For example: capsule, it is wrapped with different medicines. 
 
A java class is the example of encapsulation. Java bean is the fully encapsulated class because all 
the data members are private here. 
 
Benefits of Inheritance 
 
 One of the key benefits of inheritance is to minimize the amount of duplicate code in an


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application by sharing common code amongst several subclasses. Where equivalent code 
exists in two related classes, the hierarchy can usually be refactored to move the common 
code up to a mutual superclass. This also tends to result in a better organization of code and 
smaller, simpler compilationunits. 
 Inheritance can also make application code more flexible to change because classesthat 
inherit from a common superclass can be used interchangeably. If the return type of a


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method issuperclass 
 Reusability - facility to use public methods of base class without rewriting thesame. 
 Extensibility - extending the base class logic as per business logic of the derivedclass.  JAVA PROGRAMMING Page 3  
 Data hiding - base class can decide to keep some data private so that it cannotbe 
altered by the derived class 
Procedural and object oriented programming paradigms  JAVA PROGRAMMING Page 4  
Java Programming- History of Java


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Java Programming- History of Java 
 
The history of   java   starts from Green Team. Java team members (also known 
as Green Team ), initiated a revolutionary task to develop a language for digital  
devices such as set-top boxes, televisionsetc. 
 
For the green team members, it was an advance concept at that time. But, it was  
suited for internet programming. Later, Java technology as incorporated by 
Netscape.


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Netscape. 
 
Currently, Java is used in internet programming, mobile devices, games, e -business 
solutions etc. There are given the major points that describes the history of java. 
 
1) James Gosling, Mike Sheridan, and Patrick Naughton initiated the Java  
language project in June 1991. The small team of sun engineers called  Green 
Team. 
 
2) Originally designed for small, embedded systems in electronic appliances like set - 
topboxes.


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topboxes. 
 
3) Firstly, it was called "Greentalk" by James Gosling and file extension was.gt. 
 
4) After that, it was called Oak and was developed as a part of the Green  
project. 
Java Version History 
 
There are many java versions that has been released. Current stable release of Java 
is Java SE 8. 
1. JDK Alpha and Beta (1995) 
2. JDK 1.0 (23rd Jan, 1996) 
3. JDK 1.1 (19th Feb, 1997) 
4. J2SE 1.2 (8th Dec, 1998) 
5. J2SE 1.3 (8th May, 2000) 
6. J2SE 1.4 (6th Feb, 2002)


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6. J2SE 1.4 (6th Feb, 2002) 
7. J2SE 5.0 (30th Sep,2004) 
8. Java SE 6 (11th Dec,2006) 
9. Java SE 7 (28th July, 2011) 
10.Java SE 8 (18th March,2014)  JAVA PROGRAMMING Page 5  
Features of Java 
There is given many features of java. They are also known as java buzzwords. The Java Features 
given below are simple and easy to understand. 
1. Simple 
2. Object-Oriented 
3. Portable 
4. Platformindependent 
5. Secured 
6. Robust 
7. Architectureneutral 
8. Dynamic 
9. Interpreted


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8. Dynamic 
9. Interpreted 
10. HighPerformance 
11. Multithreaded 
12. Distributed 
 
 
 
Java Comments 
The java comments are statements that are not executed by the compiler and interpreter. The  
comments can be used to provide information or explanation about the variable, method, class or 
any statement. It can also be used to hide program code for specific time. 
 
Types of Java Comments 
 
There are 3 types of comments in java. 
 
1. Single LineComment 
2. Multi LineComment


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1. Single LineComment 
2. Multi LineComment 
3. DocumentationComment 
 
Java Single Line Comment 
 
The single line comment is used to comment only one line. 
 
Syntax: 
 
1. //This is single line comment  JAVA PROGRAMMING Page 6  
Example: 
 
public class CommentExample1 { 
public static void main(String[] args) { 
int i=10;//Here, i is a variable 
System.out.println(i); 
} 
} 
 
Output: 
 
 
 
Java Multi Line Comment 
 
The multi line comment is used to comment multiple lines of code.


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Syntax: 
 
/* 
This 
is 
multi line 
comment 
*/ 
 
Example: 
 
public class CommentExample2 { 
public static void main(String[] args) { 
/* Let's declare and 
print variable in java.*/ 
inti=10; 
System.out.println(i); 
} } 
 
Output: 
 
 
10 
10  JAVA PROGRAMMING Page 7  
Java Documentation Comment 
 
The documentation comment is used to create documentation API. To create documentation API, you need 
to use javadoc tool. 
 
Syntax: 
 
/** 
This 
is 
documentation 
comment 
*/ 
 
Example:


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This 
is 
documentation 
comment 
*/ 
 
Example: 
 
/** The Calculator class provides methods to get addition and subtraction of given 2 numbers.*/ 
public class Calculator { 
/** The add() method returns addition of given numbers.*/ 
public static int add(int a, int b){return a+b;} 
/** The sub() method returns subtraction of given numbers.*/ 
public static int sub(int a, int b){return a-b;} 
} 
 
Compile it by javac tool: 
 
 
Create Documentation API by javadoc tool:


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Create Documentation API by javadoc tool: 
 
 
Now, there will be HTML files created for your Calculator class in the current directory. Open the HTML 
files and see the explanation of Calculator class provided through documentation comment. 
javac Calculator.java 
javadoc Calculator.java  JAVA PROGRAMMING Page 8  
Data Types 
 
Data types represent the different values to be stored in the variable. In java, there are two types of data types: 
 
o Primitive datatypes


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o Primitive datatypes 
o Non-primitive datatypes 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
DataType DefaultValue Default size 
 
boolean 
 
False 
 
1 bit 
 
char 
 
'\u0000' 
 
2 byte 
 
byte 
 
0 
 
1 byte 
 
short 
 
0 
 
2 byte 
 
int 
 
0 
 
4 byte 
 
long 
 
0L 
 
8 byte 
 
float 
 
0.0f 
 
4 byte 
 
double 
 
0.0d 
 
8 byte 
 
Java Variable Example: Add Two Numbers 
class Simple{ 
public static void main(String[] args){ 
int a=10; 
int b=10; 
int c=a+b; 
System.out.println(c); 
}}


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int c=a+b; 
System.out.println(c); 
}} 
 
Output:20  JAVA PROGRAMMING Page 9  
Variables and Data Types in Java 
Variable is a name of memory location. There are three types of variables in java: local, instance 
and static. 
 
There are two types of data types in java: primitive and non-primitive. 
 
Types of Variable 
There are three types of variables in java: 
 
o localvariable 
o instancevariable 
o staticvariable 
 
1) LocalVariable


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o staticvariable 
 
1) LocalVariable 
 
A variable which is declared inside the method is called local variable. 
 
2) Instance Variable 
 
A variable which is declared inside the class but outside the method, is called instance variable . It 
is not declared as static. 
 
3) Staticvariable 
 
A variable that is declared as static is called static variable. It cannot be local. 
We will have detailed learning of these variables in next chapters.


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Example to understand the types of variables in java 
class A{ 
int data=50;//instance variable 
static int m=100;//static variable 
void method(){ 
int n=90;//local variable 
} 
}//end of class 
 
Constants in Java 
 
A constant is a variable which cannot have its value changed after declaration. It uses the 'final' 
keyword. 
Syntax 
modifierfinal dataType variableName = value; //global constant


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modifierstatic final dataType variableName = value; //constant within a c  JAVA PROGRAMMING Page 10  
Scope and Life Time of Variables 
The scope of a variable defines the section of the code in which the variable is visible. As a  
general rule, variables that are defined within a block are not accessible outside that block. 
The lifetime of a variable refers to how long the variable exists before it isdestroyed.


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Destroying variables refers to deallocating the memory that was allotted to the variables when  
declaring it. We have written a few classes till now. You might have observed that not all  
variables are the same. The ones declared in the body of a method were different from those  
that were declared in the class itself. There are three types of variables: instance variables,  
formal parameters or local variables and localvariables. 
Instance variables


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Instance variables 
 
Instance variables are those that are defined within a class itself and not in any method or  
constructor of the class. They are known as instance variables because every instance of the  
class (object) contains a copy of these variables. The scope of instance variables is determined  
by the access specifier that is applied to these variables. We have already seen about it earlier.


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The lifetime of these variables is the same as the lifetime of the object to which it be longs. 
Object once created do not exist for ever. They are destroyed by the garbage collector of Java  
when there are no more reference to that object. We shall see about Java's automatic garbage  
collector later on. 
Argument variables 
 
These are the variables that are defined in the header oaf constructor or a method. The scope


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of these variables is the method or constructor in which they are defined. The lifetime is  
limited to the time for which the method keeps executing. Once the method finishes 
execution, these variables aredestroyed. 
Local variables 
 
A local variable  is the one that is declared within  a method or a constructor (not in  the 
header). The scope and lifetime are limited to the methoditself. 
 
One important distinction between these three types of variables is that access specifiers can


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be applied to instance variables only and not to argument or local variables. 
In addition to the local variables defined in a method, we also have variables that are defined  
in bocks life an if block and an else block.  The scope and is the  same as that of  the block  
itself.  JAVA PROGRAMMING Page 11  
Operators in java 
 
Operator in java is a symbol that is used to perform operations. For example: +, -, *, / etc. 
There are many types of operators in java which are given below:


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o UnaryOperator, 
o ArithmeticOperator, 
o shiftOperator, 
o RelationalOperator, 
o BitwiseOperator, 
o LogicalOperator, 
o Ternary Operatorand 
o AssignmentOperator. 
 
Operators Hierarchy  JAVA PROGRAMMING Page 12  
Expressions 
Expressions are essential building blocks of any Java program, usually created to produce a new 
value, although sometimes an expression simply assigns a value to a variable. Expressions are 
built using values, variables, operators and method calls.


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Types of Expressions 
 
While an expression frequently produces a result, it doesn't always. There are three types of 
expressions in Java: 
 
 Those that produce a value, i.e. the result of (1 + 1) 
 Those that assign a variable, for example (v =10) 
 Those that have no result but might have a "side effect" because an expression can include 
a wide range of elements such as method invocations or increment operators that modify 
the state (i.e. memory) of aprogram.


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the state (i.e. memory) of aprogram. 
Java Type casting and Type conversion 
 
Widening or Automatic Type Conversion 
Widening conversion takes place when two data types are automatically converted. This happens 
when: 
 The two data types arecompatible. 
 When we assign value of a smaller data type to a bigger datatype. 
 
For Example, in java the numeric data types are compatible with each other but no automatic


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conversion is supported from numeric type to char or boolean. Also, char and boolean are not  
compatible with each other. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
Narrowing or Explicit Conversion 
If we want to assign a value of larger data type to a smaller data type we perform explicit type 
casting or narrowing. 
 This is useful for incompatible data types where automatic conversion cannot bedone. 
 Here, target-type specifies the desired type to convert the specified valueto. 
 
 
 
 
 JAVA PROGRAMMING Page 13


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 JAVA PROGRAMMING Page 13  
Java Enum 
 
Enum in java is a data type that contains fixed set of constants. 
 
It can be used for days of the week (SUNDAY, MONDAY, TUESDAY, WEDNESDAY, 
THURSDAY, FRIDAY and SATURDAY) , directions (NORTH, SOUTH, EAST and WEST) 
etc. The java enum constants are static and final implicitly. It is available from JDK 1.5. 
Java Enums can be thought of as classes that have fixed set of constants. 
Simple example of java enum 
classEnumExample1{


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Simple example of java enum 
classEnumExample1{ 
public enum Season { WINTER, SPRING, SUMMER, FALL } 
 
 
public static void main(String[] args) { 
for (Season s : Season.values()) 
System.out.println(s); 
}} 
 
Control Flow Statements 
 
The control flow statements in Java allow you to run or skip blocks of code when special 
conditions are met. 
The “if” Statement 
The “if” statement in Java works exactly like in most programming languages. With the help of


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“if” you can choose to execute a specific block of code when a predefined condition is met. The 
structure of the “if” statement in Java looks like this: 
 
if(condition) { 
// execute this code 
} 
Output: 
WINTER 
SPRING 
SUMMER 
FALL  JAVA PROGRAMMING Page 14  
The condition is Boolean. Boolean means it may be true or false. For example you may put a 
mathematical equation as condition. Look at this full example: 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
Creating a Stand-Alone Java Application


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Creating a Stand-Alone Java Application 
1. Write a main method that runs your program. You can write this method anywhere. In this 
example, I'll write my main method in a class called Main that has no other methods. For 
example: 
2. public class Main 
3. { 
4. public static void main(String[] args) 
5. { 
6. Game.play(); 
7. } } 
8. Make sure your code is compiled, and that you have tested it thoroughly.


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9. If you're using Windows, you will need to set your path to include Java, if you haven't 
done so already. This is a delicate operation. Open Explorer, and look inside 
C:\ProgramFiles\Java, and you should see some version of the JDK. Open this folder, and 
then open the bin folder. Select the complete path from the top of the Explorer window, and 
press Ctrl-C to copyit. 
 
Next, find the "My Computer" icon (on your Start menu or desktop), right-click it, and select


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properties. Click on the Advanced tab, and then click on the Environment variables button. 
Look at the variables listed for all users, and click on the Path variable. Do not delete the 
contents of this variable! Instead, edit the contents by moving the cursor to the right end, 
entering a semicolon (;), and pressing Ctrl-V to paste the path you copied earlier. Then go 
ahead and save your changes. (If you have any Cmd windows open, you will need to close 
them.)


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them.) 
 
10. If you're using Windows, go to the Start menu and type "cmd" to run a program that 
brings up a command prompt window. If you're using a Mac or Linux machine, run the  
Terminal program to bring up a commandprompt. 
11. In Windows, type dir at the command prompt to list the contents of the current directory. 
On a Mac or Linux machine, type ls to dothis.  JAVA PROGRAMMING Page 15  
12. Now we want to change to the directory/folder that contains your compiled code. Look at


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the listing of sub-directories within this directory, and identify which one contains your code. 
Type cd followed by the name of that directory, to change to that directory. For example, to 
change to a directory called Desktop, you would type: 
 
cd Desktop 
 
To change to the parent directory, type: 
 
cd .. 
 
Every time you change to a new directory, list the contents of that directory to see where to go


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next. Continue listing and changing directories until you reach the directory that contains 
your .class files. 
 
13. If you compiled your program using Java 1.6, but plan to run it on a Mac, you'll needto 
recompile your code from the command line, bytyping: 
 
javac -target 1.5 *.java 
 
14. Now we'll create a single JAR file containing all of the files needed to run yourprogram. 
 
Arrays 
Java provides a data structure, the  array, which stores a fixed -size sequential collection of


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elements of the same type. An array is used to store a collection of data, but it is often more  
useful to think of an array as a collection of variables of the same type. 
 
Instead of declaring individual variables, such as number0, number1, ..., and number99, you  
declare one array variable such as numbers and use numbers[0], numbers[1], and ..., 
numbers[99] to represent individual variables.


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numbers[99] to represent individual variables. 
 
This tutorial introduces how to declare array variables, create arrays, and process arrays using  
indexed variables. 
 
 
Declaring Array Variables: 
To use an array in a program, you must declare a variable to reference the array, and you must  
specify the type of array the variable can reference. Here is the syntax for declaring an array  
variable: 
 
Note: The styledataType[] arrayRefVar is preferred. The style dataType arrayRefVar[]


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comes from the C/C++ language and was adopted in Java to accommodate C/C++programmers. 
 
Example: 
dataType[] arrayRefVar; // preferred way. 
or 
dataType arrayRefVar[]; // works but not preferred way.  JAVA PROGRAMMING Page 16  
The following code snippets are examples of this syntax: 
 
double[] myList; 
or 
doublemyList[]; 
Creating Arrays: 
// preferred way. 
 
// works but not preferred way. 
You can create an array by using the new operator with the following syntax:


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The above statement does two things: 
 
 It creates an array using newdataType[arraySize]; 
 
 It assigns the reference of the newly created array to the variablearrayRefVar. 
 
Declaring an array variable, creating an array, and assigning the reference of the array to the 
variable can be combined in one statement, as shown below: 
 
Alternatively you can create arrays as follows: 
 
 
 
The array elements are accessed through the index. Array indices are 0-based; that is, they start


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from 0 to arrayRefVar.length-1. 
 
 
 
 
Example: 
Following statement declares an array variable, myList, creates an array of 10 elements of 
double type and assigns its reference tomyList: 
 
Following picture represents array myList. Here, myList holds ten double values and the indices 
are from 0 to 9. 
arrayRefVar= new dataType[arraySize]; 
dataType[] arrayRefVar = new dataType[arraySize]; 
dataType[] arrayRefVar = {value0, value1, ..., valuek};


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double[] myList = new double[10];  JAVA PROGRAMMING Page 17  
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
Processing Arrays: 
When processing array elements, we often use either for loop or for each loop because all of the 
elements in an array are of the same type and the size of the array is known. 
 
Example: 
Here is a complete example of showing how to create, initialize and process arrays: 
 
public class TestArray 
{ 
public static void main(String[] args) { 
double[] myList = {1.9, 2.9, 3.4, 3.5};


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double[] myList = {1.9, 2.9, 3.4, 3.5}; 
// Print all the array elements 
for (int i = 0; i <myList.length; i++){ 
System.out.println(myList[i] + " "); 
} 
// Summing all elements 
double total = 0; 
for(int i = 0; i <myList.length; i++) { 
total += myList[i]; 
} 
System.out.println("Total is " + total); 
// Finding the largest element 
double max = myList[0]; 
for(int i = 1; i <myList.length; i++) { if 
(myList[i] >max) max = myList[i]; 
} 
System.out.println("Max is " + max); 
}


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} 
System.out.println("Max is " + max); 
} 
}  JAVA PROGRAMMING Page 18  
1.9 
2.9 
3.4 
3.5 
Total is 11.7 
Max is 3.5 
This would produce the following result: 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
public class TestArray { 
public static void main(String[] args) { 
double[] myList = {1.9, 2.9, 3.4, 3.5}; 
// Print all the array elements 
for(double element: myList) { 
System.out.println(element); 
}}} 
 
Java Console Class


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}}} 
 
Java Console Class 
 
The Java Console class is be used to get input from console. It provides methods to read texts and 
passwords. 
 
If you read password using Console class, it will not be displayed to the user. 
 
The java.io.Console class is attached with system console internally. The Console class is 
introduced since 1.5. 
 
Let's see a simple example to read text from console. 
 
1. Stringtext=System.console().readLine(); 
2. System.out.println("Text is:"+text);


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2. System.out.println("Text is:"+text); 
 
Java ConsoleExample 
 
import java.io.Console; 
 class ReadStringTest{ 
public static void main(String args[]){ 
Console c=System.console(); 
System.out.println("Enter your name: "); 
String n=c.readLine(); 
System.out.println("Welcome"+n); } }  JAVA PROGRAMMING Page 19  
Output 
 
 
 
Constructors 
 
Constructor in java is a special type of method that is used to initialize the object.


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Java constructor is invoked at the time of object creation. It constructs the values i.e. provides data 
for the object that is why it is known as constructor. 
 
There are basically two rules defined for the constructor. 
 
1. Constructor name must be same as its classname 
2. Constructor must have no explicit returntype 
 
Types of java constructors 
 
There are two types of constructors: 
 
1. Default constructor (no-argconstructor) 
2. Parameterizedconstructor


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2. Parameterizedconstructor 
 
 
 
Java Default Constructor 
 
A constructor that have no parameter is known as default constructor. 
 
Syntax of default constructor: 
1. <class_name>(){} 
 
Example of default constructor 
 
In this example, we are creating the no-arg constructor in the Bike class. It will be invoked at 
the time of object creation. 
classBike1{ 
Bike1(){System.out.println("Bike is created");} 
public static void main(String args[]){ 
Bike1 b=new Bike1(); 
} }


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Bike1 b=new Bike1(); 
} } 
Enter your name: Nakul Jain 
Welcome Nakul Jain 
Output:Bike is created  JAVA PROGRAMMING Page 20  
Example of parameterized constructor 
In this example, we have created the constructor of Student class that have two parameters. We 
can have any number of parameters in the constructor. 
classStudent4{ 
int id; 
Stringname; 
 
Student4(int i,String n){ 
id = i; 
name = n; 
} 
void display(){System.out.println(id+" "+name);} 
 
public static void main(String args[]){


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public static void main(String args[]){ 
Student4 s1 = new Student4(111,"Karan"); 
Student4 s2 = new Student4(222,"Aryan"); 
s1.display(); 
s2.display(); 
} } 
 
Output: 
 
 
Constructor Overloading in Java 
 
Constructor overloading is a technique in Java in which a class can have any number of 
constructors that differ in parameter lists.The compiler differentiates these constructors by 
taking into account the number of parameters in the list and their type.


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Example of Constructor Overloading 
classStudent5{ 
intid; String 
name; 
intage; 
Student5(int i,String n){ 
id = i; 
name = n; 
} 
Student5(int i,String n,int a){ 
id = i; 
name = n; 
age=a; 
} 
voiddisplay(){System.out.println(id+" "+name+" "+age);} 
 
public static void main(String args[]){ 
Student5 s1 = new Student5(111,"Karan"); 
Student5 s2 = new Student5(222,"Aryan",25); 
s1.display(); 
111Karan 
222Aryan  JAVA PROGRAMMING Page 21  
s2.display(); 
} } 
 
Output:


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s2.display(); 
} } 
 
Output: 
 
Java CopyConstructor 
 
There is no copy constructor in java. But, we can copy the values of one object to another like 
copy constructor inC++. 
 
There are many ways to copy the values of one object into another in java. They are: 
 
oBy constructor 
oBy assigning the values of one object into another 
oBy clone() method of Object class 
 
In this example, we are going to copy the values of one object into another using java 
constructor. 
classStudent6{


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constructor. 
classStudent6{ 
intid; 
Stringname; 
Student6(int i,String n){ 
id = i; 
name = n; 
} 
 
Student6(Student6 s){ 
id = s.id; 
name =s.name; 
} 
voiddisplay(){System.out.println(id+" "+name);} 
 
public static void main(String args[]){ 
Student6 s1 = new Student6(111,"Karan"); 
Student6 s2 = new Student6(s1); 
s1.display(); 
s2.display(); 
} } 
 
Output: 
 
111 Karan 0 
222 Aryan 25 
111Karan 
111Karan  JAVA PROGRAMMING Page 22  
Java -Methods


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Java -Methods 
A Java method is a collection of statements that are grouped together to perform an operation.  
When you call the System.out. println() method, for example, the system actually executes  
several statements in order to display a message on the console. 
Now you will learn how to create your own methods with or without return values, invoke a 
method with or without parameters, and apply method abstraction in the program design. 
Creating Method


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Creating Method 
Considering the following example to explain the syntax of a method − 
 
Syntax 
 
Here, 
 
 public static −modifier 
 
 int − returntype 
 
 methodName − name of the method 
 
 a, b − formalparameters 
 
 int a, int b − list ofparameters 
 
Method definition consists of a method header and a method body. The same is shown in the 
following syntax − 
Syntax 
 
The syntax shown above includes −


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Syntax 
 
The syntax shown above includes − 
 
 modifier− It defines the access type of the method and it is optional touse. 
 
 returnType− Method may return avalue. 
 
 nameOfMethod− This is the method name. The method signature consists of themethod 
name and the parameter list. 
public static int methodName(int a, int b) { 
// body 
} 
modifier returnType nameOfMethod (Parameter List) { 
// method body 
}  JAVA PROGRAMMING Page 23


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// method body 
}  JAVA PROGRAMMING Page 23  
 Parameter List − The list of parameters, it is the type, order, and number of parameters 
of a method. These are optional, method may contain zeroparameters. 
 method body − The method body defines what the method does with thestatements. 
Call by Value and Call by Reference in Java 
There is only call by value in java, not call by reference. If we call a method passing a value, it


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is known as call by value. The changes being done in the called method, is not affected in t he 
calling method. 
Example of call by value in java 
In case of call by value original value is not changed. Let's take a simple example: 
classOperation{ 
intdata=50; 
voidchange(int data){ 
data=data+100;//changes will be in the local variable only 
} 
public static void main(String args[]){ 
Operation op=new Operation(); 
System.out.println("before change "+op.data); 
op.change(500);


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op.change(500); 
System.out.println("after change "+op.data); 
} 
} 
 
 
In Java, parameters are always passed by value. For example, following program prints 
i = 10, j = 20. 
// Test.java 
class Test { 
// swap() doesn't swap i and j 
public static void swap(Integer i, Integer j) { 
Integer temp = new Integer(i); 
i = j; 
j = temp; 
} 
public static void main(String[] args) { 
Integer i = new Integer(10); 
Integer j = new Integer(20); 
swap(i, j);


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Integer j = new Integer(20); 
swap(i, j); 
System.out.println("i = " + i + ", j = " + j); 
Output:before change 50 
after change 50  JAVA PROGRAMMING Page 24  
} 
} 
 
 
 
 
Static Fields and Methods 
 
The static keyword in java is used for memory management mainly. We can apply java static  
keyword with variables, methods, blocks and nested class. The static keyword belongs to the class 
than instance of the class. 
 
The static can be: 
 
1. variable (also known as classvariable)


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1. variable (also known as classvariable) 
2. method (also known as classmethod) 
3. block 
4. nestedclass 
 
Java static variable 
 
If you declare any variable as static, it is known static variable. 
 
o The static variable can be used to refer the common property of all objects (that is not unique for 
each object) e.g. company name of employees,college name of studentsetc. 
o The static variable gets memory only once in class area at the time of classloading.


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Advantage of static variable 
 
It makes your program memory efficient (i.e it saves memory). 
 
Understanding problem without static variable 
1. classStudent{ 
2. introllno; 
3. Stringname; 
4. String college="ITS"; 
5.} 
Example of static variable 
//Program of static variable 
classStudent8{ 
introllno;  JAVA PROGRAMMING Page 25  
String name; 
staticString college ="ITS"; 
Student8(int r,String n){ 
rollno =r; 
name =n; 
}


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rollno =r; 
name =n; 
} 
voiddisplay (){System.out.println(rollno+" "+name+" "+college);} 
public static void main(String args[]){ 
Student8 s1 = new Student8(111,"Karan"); 
Student8 s2 = new Student8(222,"Aryan"); 
 
s1.display(); 
s2.display(); 
} } 
Output:111 KaranITS 
222 AryanITS 
 
Java static method 
 
If you apply static keyword with any method, it is known as static method. 
 
o A static method belongs to the class rather than object of aclass.


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o A static method can be invoked without the need for creating an instance of aclass. 
o static method can access static data member and can change the value ofit. 
 
Example of static method 
//Program of changing the common property of all objects(static field). 
 
classStudent9{ 
int rollno; 
String name; 
staticString college = "ITS"; 
static void change(){ 
college = "BBDIT"; 
} 
Student9(int r, String n){ 
rollno =r; 
name =n;  JAVA PROGRAMMING Page 26  
}


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name =n;  JAVA PROGRAMMING Page 26  
} 
voiddisplay (){System.out.println(rollno+" "+name+" "+college);} 
public static void main(String args[]){ 
Student9.change(); 
Student9 s1 = new Student9 (111,"Karan"); 
Student9 s2 = new Student9 (222,"Aryan"); 
Student9 s3 = new Student9 (333,"Sonoo"); 
s1.display(); 
s2.display(); 
s3.display(); 
} } 
Java static block 
 
o Is used to initialize the static datamember. 
o It is executed before main method at the time of classloading.


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Example of static block 
class A2{ 
static{System.out.println("static block is invoked");} 
public static void main(String args[]){ 
System.out.println("Hello main"); 
} } 
 
Access Control 
 
Access Modifiers in java 
 
There are two types of modifiers in java: access modifiers and non-access modifiers. 
 
The access modifiers in java specifies accessibility (scope) of a data member, method, constructor 
or class. 
There are 4 types of java access modifiers: 
Output:111 Karan BBDIT


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Output:111 Karan BBDIT 
222 Aryan BBDIT 
333 Sonoo BBDIT 
Output: static block is invoked 
Hello main  JAVA PROGRAMMING Page 27  
1. private 
2. default 
3. protected 
4. public 
 
private access modifier 
The private access modifier is accessible only within class. 
 
Simple example of private access modifier 
In this example, we have created two classes A and Simple. A class contains private data  
member and private method. We are accessing these private members from outside the class,


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so there is compile time error. 
classA{ 
private int data=40; 
private void msg(){System.out.println("Hello java");}} 
public class Simple{ 
public static void main(String args[]){ 
A obj=new A(); 
System.out.println(obj.data);//Compile Time Error 
obj.msg();//Compile Time Error 
} } 
 
2) default accessmodifier 
If you don't use any modifier, it is treated as default bydefault. The default modifier is 
accessible only withinpackage. 
Example of default accessmodifier


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Example of default accessmodifier 
In this example, we have created two packages pack and mypack.  We are accessing the A  
class from outside its package, since A class is not public, so it cannot be accessed from outside  
thepackage. 
//save by A.java 
package pack; 
class A{ 
voidmsg(){System.out.println("Hello");} 
} 
 
//save by B.java 
package mypack; 
import pack.*;  JAVA PROGRAMMING Page 28  
classB{ 
public static void main(String args[]){ 
A obj = new A();//Compile Time Error


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A obj = new A();//Compile Time Error 
obj.msg();//Compile Time Error }} 
 
In the above example, the scope of class A and its method msg() is default so it cannot be 
accessed from outside thepackage. 
3) protected accessmodifier 
 
The protected access modifier is accessible within package and outside the package but through 
inheritance only. 
 
The protected access modifier can be applied on the data member, method and constructor. It can't 
be applied on the class.


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be applied on the class. 
Example of protected access modifier 
 
In this example,  we have created the two packages pack and  mypack. The A class of pack  
package is public, so can be accessed from outside the package. But msg method of this package 
is declared as protected, so it can be accessed from outside the class only throughinheritance. 
 
//save by A.java 
package pack; 
public class A{ 
protected void msg(){System.out.println("Hello");} } 
//save by B.java 
package mypack;


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//save by B.java 
package mypack; 
import pack.*; 
class B extends A{ 
public static void main(String args[]){ 
B obj = new B(); 
obj.msg(); 
} } 
Output:Hello  
 
4) public accessmodifier 
The public access modifier is accessible everywhere. It has the widest scope among all other 
modifiers.  JAVA PROGRAMMING Page 29  
Example of public access modifier 
//save by A.java 
package pack; 
public class A{ 
public void msg(){System.out.println("Hello");}} 
//save by B.java 
package mypack;


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//save by B.java 
package mypack; 
import pack.*; 
class B{ 
public static void main(String args[]){ 
A obj = new A(); 
obj.msg(); 
} } 
Output:Hello  
 
Understanding all java access modifiers 
 
Let's understand the access modifiers by a simple table. 
 
 
Access 
Modifier 
 
within 
class 
 
within 
package 
 
outsidepackageby 
subclassonly 
 
outside 
package 
 
Private Y N N N 
 
Default Y Y N N 
Protected Y Y Y N 
Public Y Y Y Y 
 
 
this keyword in java 
 
Usage of java this keyword


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Usage of java this keyword 
 
Here is given the 6 usage of java this keyword. 
 
1. this can be used to refer current class instancevariable. 
2. this can be used to invoke current class method(implicitly) 
3. this() can be used to invoke current classconstructor.  JAVA PROGRAMMING Page 30  
4. this can be passed as an argument in the method call. 
5. this can be passed as argument in the constructorcall. 
6. this can be used to return the current class instance from themethod.


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class Student{ 
int rollno; 
String name; 
float fee; 
Student(int rollno,String name,float fee){ 
this.rollno=rollno; 
this.name=name; 
this.fee=fee; 
} 
void display(){System.out.println(rollno+" "+name+" "+fee);} 
} 
class TestThis2{ 
public static void main(String args[]){ 
Student s1=new Student(111,"ankit",5000f); 
Student s2=newStudent(112,"sumit",6000f); 
s1.display(); 
s2.display(); 
}} 
 
Output: 
111 ankit 5000 
112 sumit 6000 
 
 
Difference between constructor and method in java


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There are many differences between constructors and methods. They are given below: 
 
 
Java Constructor Java Method 
 
Constructor is used to initialize the state of an object. 
 
Method is used to expose behaviour 
of anobject. 
Constructor must not have return type. Method must have return type. 
Constructor is invoked implicitly. Method is invoked explicitly. 
The java compiler provides a default constructor if you 
don't have any constructor. 
Method is not provided by compiler in


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Method is not provided by compiler in 
any case. 
Constructor name must be same as the class name. Method name may or may not be   
  
same as class name. 
 
 
 
Constructor Overloading in Java 
 
Constructor overloading is a technique in Java in which a class can have any number of  
constructors that differ in parameter lists.The compiler differentiates these constructors by  
taking into account the number of parameters in the list and their type. 
Example of Constructor Overloading


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Example of Constructor Overloading 
class Student5{ 
int id; String 
name; 
intage; 
Student5(int i,String n){ 
id = i; 
name = n; 
} 
Student5(int i,String n,int a){ 
id = i; 
name = n; 
age=a; 
} 
void display(){System.out.println(id+" "+name+" "+age);} 
 
public static void main(String args[]){ 
Student5 s1 = new Student5(111,"Karan"); 
Student5 s2 = newStudent5(222,"Aryan",25); 
s1.display(); 
s2.display(); 
} 
} 
 
Output: 
 
 
 
JAVAPROGRAMMING Page31 
  JAVA PROGRAMMING Page 32


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JAVA PROGRAMMING Page 32   
 
 
Method Overloading in java 
 
If a class has multiple methods having same name but different in parameters, it is known 
as MethodOverloading. 
 
If we have to perform only one operation, having same name of the methods increases the 
readability of the program. 
 
 
 
Method Overloading: changing no. of arguments 
 
In this example, we have created two methods, first add() method performs addition of two


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numbers and second add method performs addition of three numbers. 
 
In this example, we are creating static methods so that we don't need to create instance for calling 
methods. 
 
classAdder{ 
static int add(int a,int b){return a+b;} 
static int add(int a,int b,int c){return a+b+c;} 
} 
classTestOverloading1{ 
public static void main(String[] args){ 
System.out.println(Adder.add(11,11)); 
System.out.println(Adder.add(11,11,11)); 
}} 
 
Output:


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}} 
 
Output: 
 
Method Overloading: changing data type of arguments 
 
In this example, we have created two methods that differs in data type. The first add method 
receives two integer arguments and second add method receives two double arguments. 
111 Karan 0 
222 Aryan 25 
22 
33  JAVA PROGRAMMING Page 33   
Recursion in Java 
Recursion in java is a process in which a method calls itself continuously. A method in java that 
calls itself is called recursive method.


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calls itself is called recursive method. 
 
 
Java Recursion Example 1: Factorial Number 
 
public class RecursionExample3 { 
static int factorial(int n){ 
if(n == 1) 
return 1; 
else 
return(n * factorial(n-1)); 
} } 
public static void main(String[] args) { 
System.out.println("Factorial of 5 is: "+factorial(5)); 
} } 
 
Output: 
 
Java Garbage Collection 
 
In java, garbage means unreferenced objects.


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In java, garbage means unreferenced objects. 
 
Garbage Collection is process of reclaiming the runtime unused memory automatically. In other 
words, it is a way to destroy the unused objects. 
 
To do so, we were using free() function in C language and delete() in C++. But, in java it is 
performed automatically. So, java provides better memory management. 
Advantage of Garbage Collection 
o It makes java memory efficient because garbage collector removes the unreferenced


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objects from heapmemory. 
o It is automatically done by the garbage collector(a part of JVM) so we don't need to make 
extraefforts. 
gc() method 
Factorial of 5 is: 120  JAVA PROGRAMMING Page 34   
The gc() method is used to invoke the garbage collector to perform cleanup processing. The 
gc() is found in System and Runtime classes. 
 
public static void gc(){} 
Simple Example of garbage collection in java 
public class TestGarbage1{


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public class TestGarbage1{ 
public void finalize(){System.out.println("object is garbage collected");} 
public static void main(String args[]){ 
TestGarbage1 s1=new TestGarbage1(); 
TestGarbage1 s2=new TestGarbage1(); 
s1=null; 
s2=null; 
System.gc(); 
} } 
 
Java String 
string is basically an object that represents sequence of char values. An array of characters works 
same as java string. For example: 
 
1. char[] ch={'j','a','v','a','t','p','o','i','n','t'}; 
2. String s=new String(ch);


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2. String s=new String(ch); 
ssame as: 
1. Strings="javatpoint"; 
2. Java String class provides a lot of methods to perform operations on string such as  
compare(), concat(), equals(), split(), length(), replace(), compareTo(), intern(), substring() 
etc. 
3. The java.lang.String class 
implements Serializable, Comparable and CharSequenceinterfaces. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
CharSequence Interface 
object is garbage collected 
object is garbage collected  JAVA PROGRAMMING Page 35


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The CharSequence interface is used to represent sequence of characters. It is implemented by  
String, StringBuffer and StringBuilder classes. It means, we can create string in java by using  
these 3 classes. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
The java String is immutable i.e. it cannot be changed. Whenever we change any 
string, a new instance is created. For mutable string, you can use StringBuffer and StringBuilder 
classes. 
There are two ways to create String object: 
1. By stringliteral 
2. By newkeyword


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1. By stringliteral 
2. By newkeyword 
 
String Literal 
 
Java String literal is created by using double quotes. For Example: 
 
1. String s="welcome"; 
 
Each time you create a string literal, the JVM checks the string constant pool first. If the string  
already exists in the pool, a reference to the pooled instance is returned. If string doesn't exist in  
the pool, a new string instance is created and placed in the pool. For example: 
 
1. Strings1="Welcome";


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1. Strings1="Welcome"; 
2. String s2="Welcome";//will not create newinstance 
By new keyword 
1. String s=new String("Welcome");//creates two objects and one reference variable 
 
In such case, JVM will create a new string object in normal (non pool) heap memory and the  
literal "Welcome" will be placed in the string constant pool. The variable s will refer to the object  
in heap (non pool). 
 
Java String Example 
public class StringExample{ 
public static void main(String args[]){


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public static void main(String args[]){ 
String s1="java";//creating string by java string literal 
charch[]={'s','t','r','i','n','g','s'}; 
String s2=new String(ch);//converting char array to string 
String s3=new String("example");//creating java string by new keyword 
System.out.println(s1); 
System.out.println(s2); 
System.out.println(s3); 
}} 
java   JAVA PROGRAMMING Page 36   
 
Immutable String in Java


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Immutable String in Java 
 
In java, string objects are immutable. Immutable simply means unmodifiable or unchangeable. 
Once string object is created its data or state can't be changed but a new string object is created. 
Let's try to understand the immutability concept by the example given below: 
classTestimmutablestring{ 
public static void main(String args[]){ 
String s="Sachin"; 
s.concat(" Tendulkar");//concat() method appends the string at the end


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System.out.println(s);//will print Sachin because strings are immutable objects 
}} 
Output:Sachin  
classTestimmutablestring1{ 
public static void main(String args[]){ 
String s="Sachin"; 
s=s.concat(" Tendulkar"); 
System.out.println(s); 
} }Output:Sachin Tendulkar 
strings 
example  JAVA PROGRAMMING Page 37   
 
 
 
MALLA REDDY COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING &TECHNOLOGY 
DEPARTMENT OF ECE 
Unit-2 
Inheritance in Java


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DEPARTMENT OF ECE 
Unit-2 
Inheritance in Java 
Inheritance in java is a mechanism in which one object acquires all the properties and behaviors 
of parent object. Inheritance represents the IS-A relationship, also known as parent- 
childrelationship. 
 
Why use inheritance in java 
o For Method Overriding (so runtime polymorphism can beachieved). 
o For CodeReusability. 
 
Syntax of Java Inheritance 
1. classSubclass-name extends Superclass-name 
2. { 
3. //methods and 
fields4. }


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2. { 
3. //methods and 
fields4. } 
 
The extends keyword indicates that you are making a new class that derives from an existing 
class. The meaning of "extends" is to increase the functionality. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
classEmployee{ 
floatsalary=40000; 
} 
classProgrammer extends Employee{ 
intbonus=10000; 
public static void main(String args[]){ 
Programmer p=new Programmer(); 
System.out.println("Programmer salary is:"+p.salary); 
System.out.println("Bonus of Programmer is:"+p.bonus);


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} } 
 
Programmer salary is:40000.0  JAVA PROGRAMMING Page 38   
Bonus of programmeris:10000  
 
 
 
Types of inheritance in java 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
Single Inheritance Example 
File: TestInheritance.java 
 
classAnimal{ 
voideat(){System.out.println("eating...");} 
} 
classDog extends Animal{ 
voidbark(){System.out.println("barking...");} 
} 
classTestInheritance{ 
public static void main(String args[]){ 
Dog d=new Dog(); 
d.bark(); 
d.eat(); 
}} 
Output: 
barking... 
eating...


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d.eat(); 
}} 
Output: 
barking... 
eating... 
 
Multilevel Inheritance Example 
 
File: TestInheritance2.java 
 
classAnimal{ 
voideat(){System.out.println("eating...");} 
} 
classDog extends Animal{ 
voidbark(){System.out.println("barking...");} 
} 
classBabyDog extends Dog{ 
voidweep(){System.out.println("weeping...");} 
} 
classTestInheritance2{  JAVA PROGRAMMING Page 39   
public static void main(String args[]){ 
BabyDog d=new BabyDog(); 
d.weep(); 
d.bark(); 
d.eat(); 
}} 
 
Output:


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d.weep(); 
d.bark(); 
d.eat(); 
}} 
 
Output: 
 
Hierarchical Inheritance Example 
File: TestInheritance3.java 
 
classAnimal{ 
voideat(){System.out.println("eating...");} 
} 
classDog extends Animal{ 
voidbark(){System.out.println("barking...");} 
} 
classCat extends Animal{ 
voidmeow(){System.out.println("meowing...");} 
} 
classTestInheritance3{ 
public static void main(String args[]){ 
Cat c=new Cat(); 
c.meow(); 
c.eat(); 
//c.bark();//C.T.Error 
}} 
 
Output: 
 
weeping... 
barking...


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}} 
 
Output: 
 
weeping... 
barking... 
eating... 
meowing... 
eating...  JAVA PROGRAMMING Page 40   
 
 
super keyword in java 
 
The super keyword in java is a reference variable which is used to refer immediate parent class 
object. 
 
Whenever you create the instance of subclass, an instance of parent class is created implicitly 
which is referred by super reference variable. 
Usage of java super Keyword 
 
1. super can be used to refer immediate parent class instancevariable.


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2. super can be used to invoke immediate parent classmethod. 
3. super() can be used to invoke immediate parent classconstructor. 
 
super is used to refer immediate parent class instance variable. 
 
classAnimal{ 
Stringcolor="white"; 
} 
classDog extends Animal{ 
Stringcolor="black"; 
voidprintColor(){ System.out.println(color);//prints 
color of Dogclass 
System.out.println(super.color);//prints color of Animal class 
} 
} 
classTestSuper1{ 
public static void main(String args[]){


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public static void main(String args[]){ 
Dog d=new Dog(); 
Member access and Inheritance 
 
A subclass includes all of the members of its super class but it cannot access those members of 
the super class that have been declared as private. Attempt to access a private variable would 
cause compilation error as it causes access violation. The variables declared as private, is only 
accessible by other members of its own class. Subclass have no access to it.  JAVA PROGRAMMING Page 41


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d.printColor(); 
}} 
 
Output: 
 
Final Keyword in Java 
 
The final keyword in java is used to restrict the user. The java final keyword can be used in many context. 
Final can be: 
 
1. variable 
2. method 
3. class 
 
The final keyword can be applied with the variables, a final variable that have no value it is called blank  
final variable or uninitialized final variable. It can be initialized in the constructor only. The blank final


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variable can be static also which will be initialized in the static block only. 
Object class in Java 
 
The Object class is the parent class of all the classes in java by default. In other words, it is the 
topmost class of java. 
 
The Object class is beneficial if you want to refer any object whose type you don't know. Notice 
that parent class reference variable can refer the child class object, know as upcasting.


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Let's take an example, there is getObject() method that returns an object but it can be of any type 
like Employee,Student etc, we can use Object class reference to refer that object. For example: 
 
1. Object obj=getObject();//we don't know what object will be returned from thismethod 
 
The Object class provides some common behaviors to all the objects such as object can be 
compared, object can be cloned, object can be notified etc. 
Method Overriding in Java


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Method Overriding in Java 
 
If subclass (child class) has the same method as declared in the parent class, it is known 
as method overriding in java. 
black 
white  JAVA PROGRAMMING Page 42   
Usage of Java Method Overriding 
o Method overriding is used to provide specific implementation of a method that is already 
provided by its superclass. 
o Method overriding is used for runtimepolymorphism 
 
Rules for Java Method Overriding 
1. method must have same name as in the parentclass


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2. method must have same parameter as in the parentclass. 
3. must be IS-A relationship(inheritance). 
 
Example of method overriding 
Class Vehicle{ 
voidrun(){System.out.println("Vehicle is running");} 
} 
classBike2 extends Vehicle{ 
voidrun(){System.out.println("Bike is running safely");} 
public static void main(String args[]){ 
Bike2 obj = new Bike2(); 
obj.run(); 
} 
 
Output:Bike is running safely 
 
1. classBank{ 
intgetRateOfInterest(){return 0;} 
} 
classSBI extends Bank{


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} 
classSBI extends Bank{ 
intgetRateOfInterest(){return 8;} 
} 
classICICI extends Bank{ 
intgetRateOfInterest(){return 7;} 
} 
classAXIS extends Bank{ 
intgetRateOfInterest(){return 9;} 
} 
classTest2{ 
public static void main(String args[]){ 
SBI s=new SBI(); 
ICICI i=new ICICI(); 
AXIS a=new AXIS(); 
System.out.println("SBI Rate of Interest: "+s.getRateOfInterest()); 
System.out.println("ICICI Rate of Interest: "+i.getRateOfInterest());


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System.out.println("AXIS Rate of Interest: "+a.getRateOfInterest()); 
} } 
 
Output: 
SBI Rate of Interest: 8  JAVA PROGRAMMING Page 43   
 
 
Abstract class in Java 
 
A class that is declared with abstract keyword is known as abstract class in java. It can have  
abstract and non -abstract methods (method with body). It needs to be extended and its method  
implemented. It cannot be instantiated. 
Example abstract class 
1. abstract classA{} 
 
abstractmethod


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1. abstract classA{} 
 
abstractmethod 
1. abstract void printStatus();//no body and abstract 
 
Example of abstract class that has abstract method 
abstract class Bike{ 
abstract void run(); 
} 
classHonda4 extends Bike{ 
voidrun(){System.out.println("running safely..");} 
public static void main(String args[]){ 
Bike obj = new Honda4(); 
obj.run(); 
} 
1. } 
Interface in Java 
An interface in java is a blueprint of a class. It has static constants and abstract methods.


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The interface in java is a mechanism to achieve abstraction. There can be only abstract methods 
in the java interface not method body. It is used to achieve abstraction and multiple inheritance in  
Java. 
 
Java Interface also represents IS-A relationship. 
It cannot be instantiated just like abstract class. 
There are mainly three reasons to use interface. They are given below. 
o It is used to achieveabstraction. 
o By interface, we can support the functionality of multipleinheritance.


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o It can be used to achieve loosecoupling. 
ICICI Rate of Interest: 7 
AXIS Rate of Interest: 9 
runningsafely..  JAVA PROGRAMMING Page 44   
 
 
 
Internal addition by compiler 
 
 
 
 
 
Understanding relationship between classes and interfaces 
 
 
 
 
 
 
//Interface declaration: by first user 
interfaceDrawable{ 
voiddraw(); 
} 
//Implementation: by second user 
classRectangle implements Drawable{ 
public void draw(){System.out.println("drawing rectangle");} 
}


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} 
classCircle implements Drawable{ 
public void draw(){System.out.println("drawing circle");} 
} 
//Using interface: by third user 
classTestInterface1{ 
public static void main(String args[]){ 
Drawable d=new Circle();//In real scenario, object is provided by method e.g. getDrawable() 
d.draw(); 
}} 
Output:drawing circle 
 
 
Multiple inheritance in Java by interface 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
interfacePrintable{  JAVA PROGRAMMING Page 45   
voidprint(); 
} 
interfaceShowable{ 
voidshow(); 
}


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} 
interfaceShowable{ 
voidshow(); 
} 
classA7 implements Printable,Showable{ 
public void print(){System.out.println("Hello");} 
public void show(){System.out.println("Welcome");} 
public static void main(String args[]){ 
A7 obj = new A7(); 
obj.print(); 
obj.show(); 
} } 
 
Output:Hello 
Welcome 
Abstract class   Interface    
1) Abstract class can have abstract Interface can have only abstract methods. Since 
and non-abstractmethods. Java 8, it can have default and static 
 methodsalso.


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methodsalso. 
2) Abstract class doesn't support Interface supports multiple inheritance. 
multipleinheritance.  
3) Abstract class can have final, non- Interface has only static and final variables. 
final, static and non-static variables.  
4) Abstract class can provide the Interface can't provide the implementation of 
implementation ofinterface. abstract class. 
5) The abstract keyword is used to Theinterface keyword is used to declare 
declare abstract class. interface.


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declare abstract class. interface.   
6) Example:   Example:   
public abstract class Shape{ public interface Drawable{ 
public abstract void draw(); void draw(); 
}   }  
 
Java Inner Classes 
Java inner class or nested class is a class which is declared inside the class or interface. 
 
We use inner classes to logically group classes and interfaces in one place so that it can be more 
readable and maintainable. 
 
Syntax of Inner class 
1. classJava_Outer_class{ 
2. //code


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1. classJava_Outer_class{ 
2. //code 
3. classJava_Inner_class{ 
4. //code 
5. } }  JAVA PROGRAMMING Page 46   
Advantage of java inner classes 
 
There are basically three advantages of inner classes in java. They are as follows: 
 
1) Nested classes represent a special type of relationship that is it can access all the members 
(data members and methods) of outer class includingprivate. 
 
2) Nested classes are used to develop more readable and maintainable code because it


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logically group classes and interfaces in one placeonly. 
 
3) Code Optimization: It requires less code to write. 
 
Difference between nested class and inner class in Java 
 
Inner class is a part of nested class. Non-static nested classes are known as inner classes. 
 
Types of Nested classes 
 
There are two types of nested classes non-static and static nested classes.The non-static nested 
classes are also known as inner classes. 
 
o Non-static nested class (innerclass)


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o Non-static nested class (innerclass) 
1. Member inner class 
2. Anonymous innerclass 
3. Local inner class 
o Static nestedclass 
 
Java Package 
A java package is a group of similar types of classes, interfaces and sub-packages. 
Package in java can be categorized in two form, built-in package and user-defined package. 
There are many built-in packages such as java, lang, awt, javax, swing, net, io, util, sql 
etc.Advantage of JavaPackage


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etc.Advantage of JavaPackage 
1) Java package is used to categorize the classes and interfaces so that they can be easily 
maintained. 
 
2) Java package provides accessprotection. 
 
3) Java package removes namingcollision. 
 
packagemypack; 
public class Simple{ 
public static void main(String args[]){ 
System.out.println("Welcome to package"); 
} }  JAVA PROGRAMMING Page 47   
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
How to compile java package


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How to compile java package 
If you are not using any IDE, you need to follow the syntax given below: 
javac -d directory javafilename 
How to run java package program 
 
To Compile: javac -d . Simple.java 
To Run: java mypack.Simple 
 
Using fully qualified name 
 
Example of package by import fully qualified name 
 
//save by A.java 
package pack; 
public class A{ 
public void msg(){System.out.println("Hello");} } 
//save by B.java 
package mypack; 
class B{


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//save by B.java 
package mypack; 
class B{ 
public static void main(String args[]){ 
pack.A obj = new pack.A();//using fully qualified name 
obj.msg(); 
} 
} 
Output:Hello   JAVA PROGRAMMING Page 48   
MALLA REDDY COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING &TECHNOLOGY 
DEPARTMENT OF ECE 
UNIT-3 
Exception Handling 
The exception handling in java is one of the powerful mechanism to handle the runtime 
errors so that normal flow of the application can bemaintained. 
 
What is exception


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What is exception 
 
In java, exception is an event that disrupts the normal flow of the program. It is an object which is 
thrown at runtime. 
 
Advantage of Exception Handling 
 
The core advantage of exception handling is to maintain the normal flow of the application . 
Exception normally disrupts the normal flow o f the application that is why we use exception  
handling. 
Types of Exception 
 
There are mainly two types of exceptions: checked and unchecked where error is considered as


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unchecked exception. The sun microsystem says there are three types of exceptions: 
1. CheckedException 
2. UncheckedException 
3. Error 
 
Difference between checked and unchecked exceptions 
 
1) Checked Exception: The classes that extend Throwable class except RuntimeException and Error 
are known as checked exceptions e.g.IOException, SQLException etc. Checked exceptions are checked  
atcompile-time. 
2) Unchecked Exception: The classes that extend RuntimeException are known as unchecked


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exceptions e.g. ArithmeticException, NullPointerException, ArrayIndexOutOfBoundsException etc. 
Unchecked exceptions are not checked at compile-time rather they are checkedatruntime. 
3) Error: Error is irrecoverable e.g. OutOfMemoryError, VirtualMachineError, AssertionErroretc.  JAVA PROGRAMMING Page 49   
Hierarchy of Java Exception classes 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
Checked and UnChecked Exceptions  JAVA PROGRAMMING Page 50   
 
Java try block


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Java try block 
 
Java try block is used to enclose the code that might throw an exception. It must be used within 
the method. 
 
Java try block must be followed by either catch or finally block. 
 
Syntax of java try-catch 
 
1. try{ 
2. //code that may throwexception 
3. }catch(Exception_class_Name 
ref){}Syntax of try-finallyblock 
1. try{ 
2. //code that may throwexception 
3. }finally{} 
 
Java catch block


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3. }finally{} 
 
Java catch block 
 
Java catch block is used to handle the Exception. It must be used after the try block only. 
You can use multiple catch block with a single try. 
Problem without exception handling 
 
Let's try to understand the problem if we don't use try-catch block. 
 
public class Testtrycatch1{ 
public static void main(String args[]){ 
int data=50/0;//may throw exception 
System.out.println("rest of thecode..."); 
} } 
Output:


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} } 
Output: 
Exception in thread main java.lang.ArithmeticException:/ byzero  
 
As displayed in the above example, rest of the code is not executed (in such case, rest of the 
code... statement is not printed). 
 
There can be 100 lines of code after exception. So all the code after exception will not be 
executed. 
 
Solution by exception handling 
 
Let's see the solution of above problem by java try-catch block. 
 
public class Testtrycatch2{  JAVA PROGRAMMING Page 51


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public static void main(String args[]){ 
try{ 
intdata=50/0; 
}catch(ArithmeticException e){System.out.println(e);} 
System.out.println("rest of the code..."); 
} } 
1. Output: 
Now, as displayed in the above example, rest of the code is executed i.e. rest of the code... 
statement is printed. 
 
Java Multi catch block 
 
If you have to perform different tasks at the occurrence of different Exceptions, use java multi 
catch block. 
 
Let's see a simple example of java multi-catch block.


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1. public classTestMultipleCatchBlock{ 
2. public static void main(Stringargs[]){ 
3. try{ 
4. inta[]=new int[5]; 
5. a[5]=30/0; 
6. } 
7. catch(ArithmeticException e){System.out.println("task1 iscompleted");} 
8. catch(ArrayIndexOutOfBoundsException e){System.out.println("task 2 completed"); 
9. } 
10. catch(Exception e){System.out.println("common taskcompleted"); 
11. } 
12. System.out.println("rest of the code..."); 
13. } } 
 
 
 
Java nested try example


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13. } } 
 
 
 
Java nested try example 
 
Let's see a simple example of java nested try block. 
 
class Excep6{ 
public static void main(String args[]){ 
try{t 
ry{ 
System.out.println("going to divide"); 
intb =39/0; 
}catch(ArithmeticException e){System.out.println(e);} 
 
try{ 
Exception in thread main java.lang.ArithmeticException:/ by zero 
rest of the code... 
Output:task1 completed 
rest of the code...  JAVA PROGRAMMING Page 52   
inta[]=new int[5]; 
a[5]=4;


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inta[]=new int[5]; 
a[5]=4; 
}catch(ArrayIndexOutOfBoundsException e){System.out.println(e);} 
System.out.println("other statement); 
}catch(Exception e){System.out.println("handeled");} 
System.out.println("normal flow.."); 
} 
1. } 
Java finally block 
 
Java finally block is a block that is used to execute important code such as closing connection, 
stream etc. 
 
Java finally block is always executed whether exception is handled or not. 
Java finally block follows try or catch block.


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Usage of Java finally 
 
Case 1 
Let's see the java finally example where exception doesn't occur. 
class TestFinallyBlock{ 
public static void main(String args[]){ 
try{ 
intdata=25/5; 
System.out.println(data); 
} 
catch(NullPointerException e){System.out.println(e);} 
finally{System.out.println("finally block is always executed");} 
System.out.println("rest of the code..."); 
} 
} 
 
Java throw keyword 
 
The Java throw keyword is used to explicitly throw an exception.


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We can throw either checked or uncheked exception in java by throw keyword. The throw 
keyword is mainly used to throw custom exception. We will see custom exceptions later. 
 
The syntax of java throw keyword is given below. 
 
1. throwexception; 
Output:5 
finally block is always executed 
rest of the code...  JAVA PROGRAMMING Page 53   
 
 
 
Java throw keyword example 
 
In this example, we have created the validate method that takes integer value as a parameter. If


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the age is less than 18, we are throwing the ArithmeticException otherwise print a message 
welcome to vote. 
1. public class TestThrow1{ 
static void validate(int age){ 
if(age<18) 
throw new ArithmeticException("not valid"); 
else 
System.out.println("welcome to vote"); 
} 
public static void main(String args[]){ 
validate(13); 
System.out.println("rest of the code..."); 
}} 
 
Output: 
 
Exception in thread main java.lang.ArithmeticException:notvalid  
Java throws keyword


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Java throws keyword 
 
The Java throws keyword is used to declare an exception.  It gives an information to the  
programmer that there may occur an exception so it is better for the programmer to provide the  
exception handling code so that normal flow can be maintained. 
 
Exception Handling is mainly used to handle the checked exceptions. If there occurs any 
unchecked exception such as NullPointerException, it is programmers fault that he is not


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performing check up before the code being used. 
 
Syntax of java throws 
1. return_type method_name() throwsexception_class_name{ 
2. //method 
code3. } 
4. 
 
Java throws example 
 
Let's see the example of java throws clause which describes that checked exceptions can be 
propagated by throws keyword. 
 
import java.io.IOException; 
class Testthrows1{  
void m()throwsIOException{ 
throw new IOException("device error");//checked exception  JAVA PROGRAMMING Page 54   
}


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} 
voidn()throws IOException{ 
m(); 
} 
voidp(){ 
try{ 
n(); 
}catch(Exception e){System.out.println("exception handled");} 
} 
public static void main(String args[]){ 
Testthrows1 obj=new Testthrows1(); 
obj.p(); 
System.out.println("normal flow..."); } } 
Output: 
 
Java Custom Exception 
 
If you are creating your own Exception that is known as custom exception or user-defined 
exception. Java custom exceptions are used to customize the exception according to user need.


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By the help of custom exception, you can have your own exception and message. 
Let's see a simple example of java custom exception. 
class InvalidAgeException extends 
Exception{ InvalidAgeException(String s){ 
super(s); 
} } 
class TestCustomException1{ 
static void validate(int age)throws InvalidAgeException{ 
if(age<18) 
throw new InvalidAgeException("not valid"); 
else 
System.out.println("welcome to vote"); 
} 
public static void main(String args[]){ 
try{ 
validate(13);


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try{ 
validate(13); 
}catch(Exception m){System.out.println("Exception occured: "+m);} 
 
System.out.println("rest of the code..."); 
}} 
 
Output:Exception occured: InvalidAgeException:not valid rest of the code... 
exception handled 
normal flow...  JAVA PROGRAMMING Page 55   
Multithreading 
 
Multithreading in java is a process of executing multiple threads simultaneously. 
 
Thread is basically a lightweight sub-process, a smallest unit of processing. Multiprocessing and


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multithreading, both are used to achieve multitasking. 
 
But we use multithreading than multiprocessing because threads share a common memory area.  
They don't allocate separate memory area so saves memory, and context -switching between the  
threads takes less time than process. 
 
Java Multithreading is mostly used in games, animation etc. 
 
Advantages of Java Multithreading 
 
1) It doesn't block the user because threads are independent and you can performmultiple


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operations at sametime. 
 
2) You can perform many operations together so it savestime. 
 
3) Threads are independent so it doesn't affect other threads if exception occur in a singlethread. 
 
Life cycle of a Thread (Thread States) 
 
A thread can be in one of the five states. According to sun, there is only 4 states in thread life 
cycle in java new, runnable, non-runnable and terminated. There is no running state.


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But for better understanding the threads, we are explaining it in the 5 states. 
 
The life cycle of the thread in java is controlled by JVM. The java thread states are as follows: 
1. New 
2. Runnable 
3. Running 
4. Non-Runnable(Blocked) 
5. Terminated  JAVA PROGRAMMING Page 56   
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
How to create thread 
 
There are two ways to create a thread: 
 
1. By extending Threadclass 
2. By implementing Runnableinterface. 
 
Thread class:


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Thread class: 
 
Thread class provide constructors and methods to create and perform operations on a 
thread.Thread class extends Object class and implements Runnable interface. 
 
Commonly used Constructors of Thread class: 
 
oThread() 
oThread(String name) 
oThread(Runnable r) 
oThread(Runnable r,String name)  JAVA PROGRAMMING Page 57   
Commonly used methods of Thread class: 
 
1. public void run(): is used to perform action for athread.


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2. public void start(): starts the execution of the thread.JVM calls the run() method onthethread. 
3. public void sleep(long miliseconds): Causes the currently executing thread to sleep (temporarily 
cease execution) for the specified number ofmilliseconds. 
4. public void join(): waits for a thread todie. 
5. public void join(long miliseconds): waits for a thread to die for the specifiedmiliseconds. 
6. public int getPriority(): returns the priority of thethread.


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7. public int setPriority(int priority): changes the priority of thethread. 
8. public String getName(): returns the name of thethread. 
9. public void setName(String name): changes the name of the thread. 
10. public Thread currentThread(): returns the reference of currently executingthread. 
11. public int getId(): returns the id of thethread. 
12. public Thread.State getState(): returns the state of thethread. 
13. public boolean isAlive(): tests if the thread isalive.


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14. public void yield(): causes the currently executing thread object to temporarily pause and allow 
other threads toexecute. 
15. public void suspend(): is used to suspend thethread(depricated). 
16. public void resume(): is used to resume the suspendedthread(depricated). 
17. public void stop(): is used to stop thethread(depricated). 
18. public boolean isDaemon(): tests if the thread is a daemonthread. 
19. public void setDaemon(boolean b): marks the thread as daemon or userthread.


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20. public void interrupt(): interrupts thethread. 
21. public boolean isInterrupted(): tests if the thread has beeninterrupted. 
22. public static boolean interrupted(): tests if the current thread has beeninterrupted. 
 
 
Runnable interface: 
 
The Runnable interface should be implemented by any class whose instances are intended to be 
executed by a thread. Runnable interface have only one method named run(). 
1. public void run(): is used to perform action for athread.


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Starting a thread: 
 
start() method of Thread class is used to start a newly created thread. It performs following 
tasks: 
oA new thread starts(with new callstack). 
oThe thread moves from New state to the Runnable state. 
oWhen the thread gets a chance to execute, its target run() method will run.  JAVA PROGRAMMING Page 58   
Java Thread Example by extending Thread class 
 
class Multi extends Thread{ 
public void run(){ 
System.out.println("thread is running..."); 
}


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System.out.println("thread is running..."); 
} 
public static void main(String args[]){ 
Multi t1=new Multi(); 
t1.start(); 
} } 
 
Java Thread Example by implementing Runnable interface 
class Multi3 implements Runnable{ 
public void run(){ 
System.out.println("thread is running..."); 
} 
public static void main(String args[]){ 
Multi3 m1=new Multi3(); 
Thread t1 =new Thread(m1); 
t1.start(); 
} } 
 
Priority of a Thread (Thread Priority):


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} } 
 
Priority of a Thread (Thread Priority): 
Each thread have a priority. Priorities are represented by a number between 1 and 10. In most 
cases, thread schedular schedules the threads according to their priority (known as preemptive 
scheduling). But it is not guaranteed because it depends on JVM specification that which 
scheduling it chooses. 
 
3 constants defined in Thread class: 
 
1. public static intMIN_PRIORITY 
2. public static intNORM_PRIORITY 
3. public static intMAX_PRIORITY


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3. public static intMAX_PRIORITY 
 
Default priority of a thread is 5 (NORM_PRIORITY). The value of MIN_PRIORITY is 1 and 
the value of MAX_PRIORITY is 10. 
 
Example of priority of a Thread: 
class TestMultiPriority1 extends 
Thread{public void run(){ 
System.out.println("running thread name is:"+Thread.currentThread().getName()); 
System.out.println("running thread priority is:"+Thread.currentThread().getPriority()); 
} 
public static void main(String args[]){ 
Output:thread isrunning...


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Output:thread isrunning... 
Output:thread isrunning...  JAVA PROGRAMMING Page 59   
TestMultiPriority1 m1=new TestMultiPriority1(); 
TestMultiPriority1 m2=new TestMultiPriority1(); 
m1.setPriority(Thread.MIN_PRIORITY); 
m2.setPriority(Thread.MAX_PRIORITY); 
m1.start(); 
m2.start(); 
} } 
Output:running thread name is:Thread-0 
running thread priority is:10 
running thread name is:Thread-1 
running thread priority is:1 
 
 
Java synchronized method


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Java synchronized method 
 
If you declare any method as synchronized, it is known as synchronized method. 
Synchronized method is used to lock an object for any shared resource. 
When a thread invokes a synchronized method, it automatically acquires the lock for that object 
and releases it when the thread completes its task. 
 
Example of inter thread communication in java 
Let's see the simple example of inter thread communication. 
 
class Customer{ 
intamount=10000;


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class Customer{ 
intamount=10000; 
synchronized void withdraw(int amount){ 
System.out.println("going to withdraw..." ); 
if(this.amount<amount){ 
System.out.println("Less balance; waiting for deposit..."); 
try{wait();}catch(Exception e){} 
} 
this.amount-=amount; 
System.out.println("withdraw completed..."); 
} 
synchronized void deposit(int amount){ 
System.out.println("going to deposit..."); 
this.amount+=amount; 
System.out.println("deposit completed... "); 
notify(); 
} 
} 
classTest{


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notify(); 
} 
} 
classTest{ 
public static void main(String args[]){ 
final Customer c=newCustomer(); 
new Thread(){ 
public void run(){c.withdraw(15000);} 
}.start(); 
newThread(){  JAVA PROGRAMMING Page 60   
public void run(){c.deposit(10000);} 
} 
start(); 
}} 
ThreadGroup in Java 
 
Java provides a convenient way to group multiple threads in a single object. In such way, we can 
suspend, resume or interrupt group of threads by a single method call.


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Java thread group is implemented by java.lang.ThreadGroup 
 
class.Constructors of ThreadGroup class 
 
There are only two constructors of ThreadGroup class. 
 
ThreadGroup(String name) 
ThreadGroup(ThreadGroup parent, String name) 
 
Let's see a code to group multiple threads. 
 
1. ThreadGroup tg1 = new ThreadGroup("GroupA"); 
2. Thread t1 = new Thread(tg1,newMyRunnable(),"one"); 
3. Thread t2 = new Thread(tg1,newMyRunnable(),"two"); 
4. Thread t3 = new Thread(tg1,newMyRunnable(),"three");


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Now all 3 threads belong to one group. Here, tg1 is the thread group name, MyRunnable is the 
class that implements Runnable interface and "one", "two" and "three" are the thread names. 
 
Now we can interrupt all threads by a single line of code only. 
 
1. Thread.currentThread().getThreadGroup().interrupt(); 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
            
 
        
 
Output: going to withdraw... 
Less balance; waiting for deposit... 
going to deposit... 
deposit completed... 
withdraw completed


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deposit completed... 
withdraw completed 
Note: Now suspend(), resume() and stop() methods are deprecated.  JAVA PROGRAMMING Page 61   
MALLA REDDY COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING &TECHNOLOGY 
 
DEPARTMENT OF ECE 
 
UNIT 4 
 
      APPLETS: 
An applet is a program that comes from server into a client and gets executed at client side and displays 
the result. 
An applet represents byte code embedded in a html page. (Applet = bytecode + html) and run with the


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help of Java enabled browsers such as Internet Explorer. 
An applet is a Java program that runs in a browser. Unlike Java applications applets do not have a main 
() method. 
To create applet we can use java.applet.Applet or javax.swing.JApplet class. All applets inherit  the super 
class ‘Applet’. An Applet class contains several methods that help to control the execution of an applet. 
Advantages: 
1. Applets provide dynamic nature for a webpage.


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1. Applets provide dynamic nature for a webpage. 
2.  Applets are used in developing games and animations. 
3.  Writing and displaying (browser) graphics and animations is easier than applications. 
4.  In GUI development, constructor, size of frame, window closing code etc. are not required 
 
Restrictions of Applets of Applets Vs Applications 
  Applets are required separate compilation before opening in a browser.


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   In realtime environment, the bytecode of applet is to be downloaded from the server to 
the client machine. 
   Applets are treated as untrusted (as they were developed by unknown people and placed 
on unknown servers whose trustworthiness is not guaranteed). 
 Extra Code is required to communicate between applets using AppletContext. 
 
 DIFFERENCES BETWEEN APPLETS AND APPLICATIONS 
 
FEATURE APPLICATION APPLET 
main() method main() method Present main() method Not present


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Execution Can be executed on standalone 
computer system. (JDK & JRE) 
Used to run a program on client 
Browser like Chrome. 
Nature Called as stand-alone 
application as application can 
be executed from command 
prompt 
Requires some third party tool 
help like a browser to execute 
Restrictions Can access any data or software 
available on the system 
Cannot access anything on the 
system except browser‟s 
services 
Security Does not require any security Requires highest security for the


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system as they are untrusted 
Programming larger programs small programs 
Platform platform independent platform independent 
Accessibility The java applications are 
designed to work with the 
Applets are designed just for 
handling the client site  JAVA PROGRAMMING Page 62   
client as well as server. problems. 
Working Applications are created by 
writing public static void 
main(String[] s) method 
Applets are created by 
extending the java.applet.Applet 
class 
Client side / 
Server side


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class 
Client side / 
Server side 
The applications don't 
have such type of criteria 
Applets are designed for the 
client site programming purpose 
Methods Application has a single start 
point which is main method 
Applet application has 5 
methods which will be 
automatically invoked. 
Example public class MyClass 
{ public static void main(String 
args[]){} 
} 
 
 
import java.awt.*; 
import java.applet.*; 
public class Myclass extends 
Applet{ 
public void init(){} 
public void start(){}


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public void init(){} 
public void start(){} 
public void stop(){} 
public void destroy() {} 
public void paint(Graphics g) {} 
} 
 
 
 
 
 
LIFE CYCLE OF AN APPLET 
Let the Applet class extends Applet or JApplet class. 
 
            
       
 
Initialization: 

public void init(): This method is used for initializing variables, parameters to create components. This 
method is executed only once at the time of applet loaded into memory. 
public void init(){ 
//initialization 
} 
Runnning: 



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//initialization 
} 
Runnning: 

public void start (): After init() method is executed, the start method is executed automatically. 
Start method is executed as long as applet gains focus. In this method code  related to opening files 
and connecting to database and retrieving the data and processingthe data is written. 
  
JAVA PROGRAMMING           Page 63 
 
 
Idle / Runnable: 

public void stop (): This method is executed when the applet loses focus. Code related to


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closing the files and  database, stopping threads and performing clean up operations are  
written in this stop method. 
Dead/Destroyed: 
public void destroy (): This method is executed only once when the applet is terminated 
from the memory. 
Executing above methods in that sequence is called applet life cycle. 
We can also use public void paint (Graphics g) in applets. 
//An Applet skeleton. 
import java.awt.*; 
import java.applet.*; 
/* 
<applet code="AppletSkel" width=300 height=100>


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<applet code="AppletSkel" width=300 height=100> 
</applet> 
*/ 
public class AppletSkel extends Applet { 
3 Called first. 
public void 
init() { 
4 initialization 
} 
/* Called second, after init(). Also called whenever the applet is restarted. */ 
public void start() { 
3 start or resume execution 
} 
4 Called when the applet is 
stopped. public void stop() { 
5 suspends execution 
} 
/* Called when applet is terminated. This is the last method executed. */ 
public void destroy() {


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public void destroy() { 
5 perform shutdown activities 
} 
6 Called when an applet's window must be 
restored. public void paint(Graphics g) { 
7 redisplay contents of window 
} 
} 
After writing an applet, an applet is compiled in the same way as Java application but running of 
an applet is different. 
There are two ways to run an applet. 
 Executing an applet within a Java compatible web browser. 
 Executing an applet using ‘appletviewer’. This executes the applet in a window.


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To execute an applet using web browser, we must write a small HTML file which contains the  
appropriate „APPLET‟ tag. <APPLET> tag is useful to embed an applet into an HTML page. It  
has the following form:   
JAVA PROGRAMMING           Page 64 
 
 
<APPLET CODE=”name of the applet class file” HEIGHT = maximum height  of applet in  
pixels WIDTH = maximum width of  applet in pixels ALIGN = alignment (LEFT, RIGHT, 
MIDDLE, TOP, BOTTOM)> 
<PARAM NAME = parameter name VALUE = its


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<PARAM NAME = parameter name VALUE = its 
value> </APPLET> 
Execution: appletviewer programname.java or appletviewer programname.html 
The <PARAM> tag useful to define a variable (parameter) and its value inside the HTML page  
which can be passed to the applet. The applet can access the parameter value using 
getParameter () method, as: String value = getParameter (“pname”); 
Example Program: 
Following is a simple applet named HelloWorldApplet.java − 
import java.applet.*;


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import java.applet.*; 
import java.awt.*; 
public class HelloWorldApplet extends Applet { 
public void paint (Graphics g) { 
g.drawString ("Hello World", 25, 50); 
} } 
Invoking an Applet - HelloWorldApplet.html 
<html> 
<title>The Hello, World Applet</title> 
<applet code = "HelloWorldApplet.class" width = "320" height = "120"> 
</applet> 
</html> 
OUTPUT: javac HelloWorldApplet.java 
appletviewer HelloWorldApplet.html 
Embedded an Applet 
//First.java 
import java.applet.Applet;


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//First.java 
import java.applet.Applet; 
import java.awt.Graphics; 
/* 
<applet code="First.class" width="300" height="300"> 
</applet> 
*/ 
public class First extends Applet 
{ 
public void paint(Graphics g){ 
g.drawString("welcome to applet",150,150); 
} 
} 
OUTPUT: javac First.java 
appletviewer First.java 
 
TYPES OF APPLETS 
Applets are of two types: 
// Local Applets 
// Remote Applets   
JAVA PROGRAMMING           Page 65


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JAVA PROGRAMMING           Page 65 
 
 
Local Applets: An applet developed locally and stored in a local  system is called local applets.  
So, local system does not require internet.  We can write our own applets and embed them into  
the web pages. 
Remote Applets: The applet that is downloaded from a remote computer system and embed  
applet into a web page. The i nternet should be present in the system to download the applet and


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run it. To download the applet we must know the applet address on web known as Uniform  
Resource Locator(URL) and must be specified in the applets HTML document as the value of  
CODEBASE. 
 
PASSING PARAMETERS TO AN APPLET 
Java applet has the feature of retrieving the parameter values passed from the html page. So, you  
can pass the parameters from your html page to the applet embedded in your page. The param


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tag(<parma name="" value=""></param >) is used to pass the parameters to an applet. The 
applet has to call the getParameter() method supplied by the java.applet.Applet parent class. 
 
Ex1: Write a program to pass employ name and id number to an applet. 
import java.applet.*; 
import java.awt.*; 
/* <applet code="MyApplet2.class" width = 600 height= 450> 
<param name = "t1" value="Hari Prasad"> <param name = 
"t2" value ="101"> 
</applet> */ 
 
public class MyApplet2 extends Applet 
{


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public class MyApplet2 extends Applet 
{ 
String n; 
String id; 
public void init() 
{ 
n = getParameter("t1"); 
id = getParameter("t2"); 
} 
public void paint(Graphics g) 
{ 
rawString("Name is : " 
+ n, 100,100); 
g.drawString("Id is : 
"+ id, 100,150); 
} 
} 
Ex2: Write a program to pass two numbers and pass result to an applet. 
import java.awt.*; 
import java.applet.*; 
/*<APPLET code="Pp" width="300" 
height="250"> <PARAM name="a" value="5"> 
<PARAM name="b" value="5"> 
</APPLET>*/


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<PARAM name="b" value="5"> 
</APPLET>*/ 
public class Pp extends Applet 
{   
JAVA PROGRAMMING           Page 66 
 
 
String str; 
int a,b,result; 
public void init() 
{ 
str=getParameter("a"); 
a=Integer.parseInt(str); 
str=getParameter("b"); 
 
b=Integer.parseInt(str); 
result=a+b; 
str=String.valueOf(result); 
} 
public void paint(Graphics g) 
{ 
g.drawString(" Result of Addition is : "+str,0,15); 
} 
} 
 
 
Ex3: Hai.java 
import java.applet.*; 
import java.awt.*;


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import java.applet.*; 
import java.awt.*; 
/*<Applet code="hai" height="250" width="250"> 
<PARAM name="Message" value="Hai friend how are you ..?"></APPLET> 
*/ 
class hai extends Applet 
{ 
private String defaultMessage = &quot;Hello!&quot;; 
public void paint(Graphics g) { 
 
String inputFromPage = this.getParameter(&quot;Message&quot;); if 
(inputFromPage == null) inputFromPage = defaultMessage; 
g.drawString(inputFromPage, 50, 55); 
} 
} 
Output:  JAVA PROGRAMMING Page 67


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} 
} 
Output:  JAVA PROGRAMMING Page 67 
 
 
MRCET UNIT-IV JP NOTES III B.TECH. I SEM 
EVENT HANDLING 
Event handling is at the core of successful applet programming. Most events to which the applet  
will respond are generated by the user. The most commonly handled events are those generated  
by the mouse, the keyboard, and various controls, such as a push button. 
Events are supported by the java.awt.event package. 
The Delegation Event Model 



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The Delegation Event Model 

The modern approach to handling events is based on the delegation event model, which 
defines standard and consistent mechanisms to generate and process events. 

Its concept is quite simple: a source generates an event and sends it to one or more 
listeners. In this scheme, the listener simply waits until it receives an event. Once received,  
the listener processes the event and then returns.


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The advantage of this design is that the application logic that processes events is  
cleanly separated from the user interface logic that generates those events. A user interface  
element is able to "delegate" the processing of an event to a separate piece of code. 
 
In the delegation event model, listeners must register with a source in order to  
receive an event notification. This provides an important benefit: notifications are sent only  
to listeners that want to receive them.


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to listeners that want to receive them. 
 
EVENTS 
In the delegation model, an event is an object that describes a state change in a source. It can be  
generated as a consequence of a person interacting with the elements in a  graphical user 
interface. Some of the activities that cause events to be generated are pressing a button, entering 
a character via the keyboard, selecting an item in a list, and clicking the mouse.


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Events may also occur that are not directly caused by interactions with a user interface. 
For example , an event may be generated when a timer expires, a counter exceeds a value,  
software or hardware failure occurs, or an operation is completed. 
EVENT SOURCES 
A source is an object that generates an event. This occurs when the internal state of that object  
changes in some way. Sources may generate more than one type of event. A source must register


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listeners in order for the  listeners to receive notifications about  a specific type  of event. Each  
type of event has its own registration method. 
Here is the general form: 
public void add Type Listener( Type Listener el ) 
EVENT LISTENERS 
A listener is an object that is notified when an event occurs. It has two major requirements. First, 
it must have been registered with one or more sources to receive notifications about  specific


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types of events. Second, i t must implement methods to receive and process these notifications.  
The methods that receive and process events are defined in a set of interfaces found in 
java.awt.event.  JAVA PROGRAMMING Page 68 
 
 
 
For example, the MouseMotionListener interface defines two methods to receive notifications  
when the mouse is dragged or moved. 
EVENT CLASSES 
The classes that represent events are at the core of Java's event handling mechanism. At the root


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of the Java event class hierarchy is EventObject, which is in java.util. It is the superclass for all  
events. 
It’s one constructor is shown here: 
EventObject(Object src ) 
EventObject contains two methods: getSource( ) and toString( ) . 
The getSource( ) method returns the source of the event. Ex: Object getSource( ) 
toString( ) returns the string equivalent of the event. 
The package java.awt.event defines several types of events that are generated by various user 
interface elements.


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interface elements. 
Event Class Description 
ActionEvent Generated when a button is pressed, a list item is double-clicked, or a menu 
item is selected. 
AdjustmentEvent Generated when a scroll bar is manipulated. 
ComponentEvent Generated when a component is hidden, moved, resized or becomes visible. 
ContainerEvent Generated when a component is added to or removed from a container. 
FocusEvent Generated when a component gains or loses keyboard focus.


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InputEvent Abstract super class for all component input event classes. 
ItemEvent Generated when a check box or list item is clicked; so occurs when a choice 
selection is made or a checkable menu item is selected or deselected. 
KeyEvent Generated when input is received from the keyboard. 
MouseEvent Generated when the mouse is dragged, moved, clicked, pressed, or released; 
also generated when the mouse enters or exits a component.


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MouseWheelEvent Generated when the mouse wheel is moved. (Added by Java 2, version 1.4) 
TextEvent Generated when the value of a text area or text field is changed. 
WindowEvent Generated when a window is activated, closed, deactivated, deiconified, 
iconified, opened, or quit. 
The ActionEvent Class 
An ActionEvent is generated when a button is pressed, a list item is double-clicked, or a menu 
item is selected. The ActionEvent class defines four integer constants that can be used to


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identify any modifiers associated with an action event: ALT_MASK , CTRL_MASK , 
META_MASK , and SHIFT_MASK . 
ActionEvent has these three constructors: 
ActionEvent(Object src , int type , String cmd ) 
ActionEvent(Object src , int type , String cmd , int modifiers ) 
ActionEvent(Object src , int type, String cmd, long when , int modifiers )  JAVA PROGRAMMING Page 69 
 
 
 
 
 
The ComponentEvent Class 
// ComponentEvent is generated when the size, position, or visibility of a component  is


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changed. There are four types of component events. The constants and their meanings are 
shown here: 
COMPONENT_HIDDEN The component was hidden. 
COMPONENT_MOVED The component was moved. 
COMPONENT_RESIZED The component was resized. 
COMPONENT_SHOWN The component became visible. 
The ContainerEvent Class 
//ContainerEvent is generated when a component is added to or removed from a container. 
There are two types of container events. 

COMPONENT_ADDED and 
COMPONENT_REMOVED The KeyEvent Class


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COMPONENT_REMOVED The KeyEvent Class 
//KeyEvent is generated when keyboard input occurs. There are three types of key events,  
which are identified by these integer constants: KEY_PRESSED, KEY_RELEASED,  
and KEY_TYPED . 
The first two events are generated when any key is pressed or released. The last event occurs 
only when a character is generated. 
The MouseEvent Class 
There are eight types of mouse events. The MouseEvent class defines the following integer


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constants that can be used to identify them: 
MOUSE_CLICKED The user clicked the mouse. 
MOUSE_DRAGGED The user dragged the mouse. 
MOUSE_ENTERED The mouse entered a component. 
MOUSE_EXITED The mouse exited from a component. 
MOUSE_MOVED The mouse moved. 
MOUSE_PRESSED The mouse was pressed. 
MOUSE_RELEASED The mouse was released. 
MOUSE_WHEEL The mouse wheel was moved (Java 2, v1.4). 
The WindowEvent Class


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The WindowEvent Class 
There are ten types of window events. The WindowEvent class defines integer constants that 
can be used to identify them. The constants and their meanings are shown here: 
WINDOW_ACTIVATED The window was activated. 
WINDOW_CLOSED The window has been closed. 
WINDOW_CLOSING The user requested that the window be closed. 
WINDOW_DEACTIVATED The window was deactivated. 
WINDOW_DEICONIFIED The window was deiconified. 
WINDOW_GAINED_FOCUS The window gained input focus.


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WINDOW_ICONIFIED The window was iconified. 
WINDOW_LOST_FOCUS The window lost input focus. 
WINDOW_OPENED The window was opened. 
WINDOW_STATE_CHANGED The state of the window changed. 
 
 JAVA PROGRAMMING Page 70 
 
 
 
 
 
EVENT LISTENER INTERFACES 
When an event occurs, the event source invokes the appropriate method defined by the listener 
and provides an event object as its argument 
Interface Description 
ActionListener Defines one method to receive action events.


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AdjustmentListener Defines one method to receive adjustment events. 
ComponentListener Defines four methods to recognize when a component is hidden, 
moved, resized, or shown. 
ContainerListener Defines two methods to recognize when a component is added to or 
removed from a container. 
FocusListener Defines two methods to recognize when a component gains or losses 
keyboard focus. 
ItemListener Defines one method to recognize when the state of an item changes.


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KeyListener Defines three methods to recognize when a key is pressed, released, 
or typed. 
MouseListener Defines five methods to recognize when the mouse is clicked, enters a 
component, exits a component, is pressed, or is released. 
MouseMotionListener Defines two methods to recognize when the mouse is dragged or 
moved. 
MouseWheelListener Defines one method to recognize when the mouse wheel is moved. 
TextListener Defines one method to recognize when a text value changes.


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WindowListener Defines seven methods to recognize when a window is activated, 
closed, deactivated, deiconified, iconified, opened, or quit. 
The delegation event model has two parts: sources and listeners. Listeners are created by 
implementing one or more of the interfaces defined by the java.awt.event package. 
The ActionListener Interface 
This interface defines the actionPerformed( ) method that is invoked when an action event 
occurs.


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occurs. 
Its general form is shown here: void actionPerformed(ActionEvent ae ) 
The ItemListener Interface 
This interface defines the itemStateChanged( ) method that is invoked when the state of an item 
changes. 
Its general form is shown here: void itemStateChanged(ItemEvent ie ) 
The KeyListener Interface 
This interface defines three methods. The keyPressed( ) and keyReleased( ) methods are invoked 
when a key is pressed and released, respectively. The keyTyped( ) method is invoked


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when a character has been entered. For example, if a user presses and releases the key, three 
events are generated in A sequence: key pressed, typed, and released. 
The general forms of these methods are shown here: 
void keyPressed(KeyEvent ke ) 
void keyReleased(KeyEvent ke ) 
void keyTyped(KeyEvent ke ) 
 
 
 
 
 JAVA PROGRAMMING Page 71 
 
 
 
 
The MouseListener Interface 
This interface defines five methods. If the mouse is pressed and released at the same point,


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mouseClicked( ) is invoked. When the mouse enters a component, the mouseEntered( ) method  
is called. When it leaves, mouseExited(  ) is called. The mousePressed( ) and mouseReleased( )  
methods are invoked when the mouse is pressed and released, respectively. 
The general forms of these methods are shown here: 
void mouseClicked(MouseEvent me )  
void mouseEntered(MouseEvent me )  
void mouseExited(MouseEvent me ) 
void mousePressed(MouseEvent me )  
void mouseReleased(MouseEvent me )


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void mouseReleased(MouseEvent me ) 
 
 
The MouseMotionListener Interface 
This interface defines two methods. The mouseDragged( ) method is called multiple times as the  
mouse is dragged. The mouseMoved( ) method is called multiple times as the mouse is moved. 
 
Their general forms are shown here: 
void mouseDragged(MouseEvent me ) 
void mouseMoved(MouseEvent me ) 
The TextListener Interface 
This interface defines the textChanged( ) method that is invoked when a change occurs in a text


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area or text field. 
Its general form is shown here: void textChanged(TextEvent te ) 
 
Handling Mouse Events 
To handle mouse events, we must implement the MouseListener and the MouseMotion Listener 
interfaces. 
EX: // Demonstrate the mouse event handlers. 
import java.awt.*; 
import java.awt.event.*; 
import java.applet.*; 
/* 
<applet code="MouseEvents" width=300 height=100> 
</applet> 
*/ 
public class MouseEvents extends Applet implements MouseListener, MouseMotionListener


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{ String msg = ""; 
int mouseX = 0, mouseY = 0; // coordinates of mouse 
public void init() { 
addMouseListener(this); 
addMouseMotionListener(this); 
}  JAVA PROGRAMMING Page 72 
 
 
// Handle mouse clicked. 
public void mouseClicked(MouseEvent me) { 
mouseX = 0; // save coordinates 
mouseY = 10; 
msg = "Mouse clicked."; 
repaint(); 
} 
// Handle mouse entered. 
public void mouseEntered(MouseEvent me) { 
// save 
coordinates 
mouseX = 0; 
mouseY = 10; 
msg = "Mouse entered."; 
repaint(); 
}


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msg = "Mouse entered."; 
repaint(); 
} 
 
// Handle mouse exited. 
public void mouseExited(MouseEvent me) { 
// save 
coordinate 
s mouseX 
= 0; 
mouseY = 
10; 
msg = "Mouse exited."; 
repaint(); 
} 
// Handle button pressed. 
public void mousePressed(MouseEvent me) { 
// save coordinates 
mouseX = 
me.getX(); 
mouseY = 
me.getY(); msg = 
"Down"; repaint(); 
} 
// Handle button released. 
public void mouseReleased(MouseEvent me) { 
1. save 
coordinates 
mouseX = 
me.getX(); 
mouseY =


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coordinates 
mouseX = 
me.getX(); 
mouseY = 
me.getY(); msg 
= "Up"; 
repaint(); 
}   
JAVA PROGRAMMING Page 73 
 
 
2. Handle mouse dragged. 
public void mouseDragged(MouseEvent me) { 
1. save coordinates 
mouseX = 
me.getX(); 
mouseY = me.getY(); 
msg = "*"; 
showStatus("Dragging mouse at " + mouseX + ", " + mouseY); 
repaint(); 
} 
// Handle mouse moved. 
public void mouseMoved(MouseEvent me) { 
// show status 
showStatus("Moving mouse at " + me.getX() + ", " + me.getY()); 
}


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} 
// Display msg in applet window at current X,Y location. 
public void paint(Graphics g) { 
g.drawString(msg, mouseX, mouseY); 
} 
} 
Handling Keyboard Events 
When a key is pressed, a KEY_PRESSED event is generated. This results in a call to the  
keyPressed( ) event handler. When the key is released, a KEY_RELEASED event is generated  
and the keyReleased( ) handler is executed. If a character is generated by the keystroke, then a


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KEY_TYPED event is sent and the keyTyped( ) handler is invoked. 
Thus, each time the user presses a key, at  least two and often three events are generated. If all  
you care about are actual characters, then you can ignore the information passed by the key press  
and release events. 
EX: // Demonstrate the key event handlers. 
import java.awt.*; 
import java.awt.event.*; 
import java.applet.*; 
/* <applet code="SimpleKey" width=300 
height=100> </applet> */


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height=100> </applet> */ 
public class SimpleKey extends Applet implements KeyListener 
{ 
String msg = ""; 
int X = 10, Y = 20; // output coordinates 
public void init() { 
addKeyListener(this); 
requestFocus(); // request input focus 
} 
public void keyPressed(KeyEvent ke)   
JAVA PROGRAMMING Page 74 
 
 
{ showStatus("Key Down"); } 
 
public void keyReleased(KeyEvent ke) { 
showStatus("Key Up"); 
 
public void keyTyped(KeyEvent ke) { 
msg += ke.getKeyChar(); 
repaint(); 
}


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msg += ke.getKeyChar(); 
repaint(); 
} 
// Display keystrokes. 
public void paint(Graphics g) 
{ g.drawString(msg, X, Y); } 
 
} 
Adapter Classes 
Java provides a special feature, called an adapter class , that can simplify the creation of event 
handlers in certain situations. An adapter class provides an empty implementation of all methods  
in an event listener interface. 
Adapter classes are useful when you want to receive and process only some of the events that are


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handled by a particular event listener interface. 
For example, the MouseMotionAdapter class has two methods, mouseDragged( ) and 
mouseMoved( ) . The signatures of these empty methods are exactly as defined in the 
MouseMotionListener interface. If you were interested  in only mouse  drag events, then you  
could simply extend MouseMotionAdapter and implement mouseDragged( ) . The empty 
implementation of mouseMoved( ) would handle the mouse motion events for you. 
Adapter Class


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Adapter Class 
ComponentAdapter 
ContainerAdapter 
FocusAdapter 
KeyAdapter 
MouseAdapter 
MouseMotionAdapter 
WindowAdapter 
Listener Interface 
ComponentListener 
ContainerListener 
FocusListener 
KeyListener 
MouseListener 
MouseMotionListener 
WindowListener  JAVA PROGRAMMING Page 75 
 
 
EX: // Demonstrate an adapter. 
import java.awt.*; 
import java.awt.event.*; 
import java.applet.*; 
/* 
<applet code="AdapterDemo" width=300 height=100> 
</applet> 
*/


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</applet> 
*/ 
public class AdapterDemo extends Applet 
{ 
public void init() { 
addMouseListener(new MyMouseAdapter(this)); 
addMouseMotionListener(new 
MyMouseMotionAdapter(this)); } 
 
class MyMouseAdapter extends MouseAdapter 
{ 
AdapterDemo adapterDemo; 
public MyMouseAdapter(AdapterDemo adapterDemo) 
{ 
this.adapterDemo = adapterDemo; 
} 
// Handle mouse clicked. 
public void mouseClicked(MouseEvent me) { 
adapterDemo.showStatus("Mouse clicked"); 
} 
}


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adapterDemo.showStatus("Mouse clicked"); 
} 
} 
 
class MyMouseMotionAdapter extends 
MouseMotionAdapter { 
AdapterDemo adapterDemo; 
public MyMouseMotionAdapter(AdapterDemo adapterDemo) 
{ 
this.adapterDemo = adapterDemo; 
} 
// Handle mouse dragged. 
public void mouseDragged(MouseEvent me) 
{ 
adapterDemo.showStatus("Mouse dragged"); 
} 
} 
 
Files and Streams: 
Text stream classes for reading data Text stream classes for writing data  MRCET UNIT-IV JP NOTES III B.TCH. I SEM


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JAVA PROGRAMMING Page 76 
 
 
 
Stream 
A stream can be defined as a sequence of data. There are two kinds of Streams − 
 InPutStream − The InputStream is used to read data from a source. 
 OutPutStream − The OutputStream is used for writing data to a destination. 
 
 
 
 
Java provides strong but flexible support for I/O related to files and networks. 
Byte Streams 
Java byte streams are used to perform input and output of 8 -bit bytes. Though there are many


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classes related to byte streams but the most frequently used classes are, FileInputStream and 
FileOutputStream. 
Example 
import java.io.*; 
public class CopyFile { 
public static void main(String args[]) throws IOException { 
FileInputStream in = null; 
FileOutputStream out = null; 
try { 
in = new FileInputStream("input.txt"); 
out = new FileOutputStream("output.txt"); 
int c; 
while ((c = in.read()) != -1) { 
out.write(c); 
} 
}finally { 
if (in != null) { 
in.close(); 
}


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} 
}finally { 
if (in != null) { 
in.close(); 
} 
if (out != null) { 
out.close(); 
} } } } 
Now let's have a file input.txt with the following content: 
This is test for copy file. 
$javac CopyFile.java 
$java CopyFile 
Character Streams 
Java Byte streams are used to perform input and output of  8-bit bytes, whereas 
Java Character streams are used to perform input and output for 16-bit unicode. Though 
there are many classes related to character streams but the most frequently used classes


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are, FileReader and FileWriter.  MRCET UNIT-IV JP NOTES III B.TCH. I SEM 
JAVA PROGRAMMING Page 77 
 
 
 
Though internally FileReader uses FileInputStream and FileWriter uses FileOutputStream but  
here the major difference is that FileReader reads two bytes at a time and FileWriter writes two  
bytes at a time. 
Example 
import java.io.*; 
public class CopyFile { 
public static void main(String args[]) throws IOException { 
FileReader in = null; 
FileWriter out = null; 
try {


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FileWriter out = null; 
try { 
in = new FileReader("input.txt"); 
out = new FileWriter("output.txt"); 
int c; 
while ((c = in.read()) != -1) { 
out.write(c); 
} 
}finally { 
if (in != null) { 
in.close(); 
} 
if (out != null) { 
out.close(); 
} 
} 
} 
} 
 
Reading and Writing Files Text input/output, 
As described earlier, a stream can be defined as a sequence of data. The InputStream is used to 
read data from a source and the OutputStream is used for writing data to a destination. Here is


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a hierarchy of classes to deal with Input and Output streams.  MRCET UNIT-IV JP NOTES III B.TCH. I SEM 
JAVA PROGRAMMING Page 78 
 
 
 
The two important streams are FileInputStream and FileOutputStream (File Handling) 
In Java, FileInputStream and FileOutputStream classes are used to read and write data in file. In 
another words, they are used for file handling in java. 
Java FileOutputStream class


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Java FileOutputStream class 
Java FileOutputStream is an output stream for writing data to a file. It is a class belongs to byte 
streams. It can be used to create text files. 

First we should read data from the keyword. It uses DataInputStream class for reading data from the 
keyboard is as: 
DataInputStream dis=new DataInputStream(System.in); 

FileOutputStream used to send data to the file and attaching the file to FileOutputStream. i.e.,


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FileOutputStream fout=new FileOutputStream(“File_name”); 

The next step is to read data from DataInputStream and write it into FileOutputStream. It means read data 
from dis object and write it into fout object. i.e., 
ch=(char)dis.read(); //read one character into ch 
fout.write(ch); //write ch into file. 

Finally closing the file using: fout.close(); 
Creating a Text file: 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
Example: Write a program to read data from the keyboard and write it to myfile.txt file.


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import java.io.*; 
class Test{ 
public static void main(String args[]) 
{ 
DataInputStream dis=new DataInputStream(System.in); 
FileOutputstream fout=new 
FileOutputStream("myfile.txt"); System.out.println("Enter 
text @ at the end:”); char ch; 
while((ch=(char)dis.read())!=‟@‟) 
fout.write(ch); 
fout.close(); 
} 
} 
Output: javac Test.java 
Java Test  MRCET UNIT-IV JP NOTES III B.TCH. I SEM 
JAVA PROGRAMMING Page 79 
 
 
 
Java FileInputStream class


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Java FileInputStream class 
It is useful to read data from a file in the form of sequence of bytes. It is possible to read data 
from a text file using FileInputStream. i.e., 
FileInputStream fin= new FileInputStream(“myfile.txt”); 

To read data from 
the file is, ch=fin.read(); 
When there is no more data available to read then it returns -1. 

The Output Stream is used to send data to the monitor. i.e., PrintStream, for displaying the data we can 
use System.out.


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use System.out. 
System.out.print(ch); 
Reading data from a text file using FileInputStream: 
 
Java FileInputStream class obtains input bytes from a file. It is used for reading streams of raw  
bytes such as image data. It should be  used to read byte-oriented data for example to read image,  
audio, video etc. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
Example: Write a program to read data from myfile.txt using FileInputStream and display 
it on monitor. 
import java.io.*; 
class ReadFile 
{


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import java.io.*; 
class ReadFile 
{ 
public static void main(String args[]) 
{ 
 
FileInputStream fin=new FileInputStream("myfile.txt"); 
System.out.println(“File Contents:”); int ch; 
while((ch=fin.read())!=-1) 
{ 
System.out.println((char)ch); 
} 
fin.close(); 
} 
} 
Output: javac ReadFile.java 
java ReadFile  MRCET UNIT-V JP NOTES III B.TCH. I SEM 
JAVA PROGRAMMING Page 80 
 
 
 
UNIT V: 
GUI Programming with Java – AWT class hierarchy, component, container, panel,


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window, frame, graphics. 
AWT controls: Labels, button, text field, check box, check box groups, choices, lists, 
scrollbars, and graphics. 
Layout Manager – Layout manager types: border, grid and flow. 
Swing – Introduction, limitations of AWT, Swing vs AWT. 
 
GUI PROGRAMMING WITH JAVA 
ABSTRACT WINDOW TOOLKIT (AWT) 
Java AWT (Abstract Window Toolkit) is an API to develop GUI or window-based application 
in java. Java AWT components are platform-dependent i.e. components are displayed


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according to the view of operating system. AWT is heavyweight i.e. its components uses the  
resources of system. The Abstract Window Toolkit(AWT) support for applets. The AWT 
contains numerous classes and methods that allow you to create and manage windows. 
The java.awt package provides classes for AWT api such as TextField, Label, TextArea, 
RadioButton, CheckBox, Choice, List etc. 
AWT Classes 
The AWT classes are contained in the java.awt package. It is one of Java's largest packages.


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Class Description 
AWTEvent Encapsulates AWT events. 
AWTEventMulticaster Dispatches events to multiple listeners. 
BorderLayout Border layouts use five components: 
North, South, East, West, and Center. 
CardLayout Card layouts emulate index cards. 
Only the one on top is showing. 
Checkbox Creates a check box control. 
CheckboxGroup Creates a group of check box controls. 
CheckboxMenuItem Creates an on/off menu item. 
Choice Creates a pop-up list.


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Choice Creates a pop-up list. 
Color Manages colors in a portable, platform-independent fashion. 
Component An abstract superclass for various AWT components. 
Container A subclass of Component that can hold other components. 
Cursor Encapsulates a bitmapped cursor. 
Dialog Creates a dialog window. 
Dimension Specifies the dimensions of an object. The width is stored in 
width , and the height is stored in height . 
Event Encapsulates events.


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Event Encapsulates events. 
FlowLayout The flow layout manager. Flow layout positions components left 
to right, top to bottom. 
Frame Creates a standard window that has a title bar, resize corners, and 
a menu bar. 
Graphics Encapsulates the graphics context.  MRCET UNIT-V JP NOTES III B.TCH. I SEM 
JAVA PROGRAMMING Page 81 
 
 
 
Control Fundamentals 
The AWT supports the following types of controls: 
3. Labels 
4. Push buttons 
5. Check boxes 
6. Choice lists 
7. Lists 
8. Scroll bars


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6. Choice lists 
7. Lists 
8. Scroll bars 
9. Text editing 
 
User interaction with the program is of two types: 
CUI (Character User Interface): In CUI user interacts with the application by 
typing characters or commands. In CUI user should remember the commands. It is 
not user friendly. 
2. GUI (Graphical User Interface): In GUI user interacts with the application through graphics.  
GUI is user friendly. GUI makes application attractive. It is possible to simulate real object in


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GUI programs. In java to write GUI programs we can use awt (Abstract Window Toolkit)  
package. 
 
Java AWT Class Hierarchy 
The hierarchy of Java AWT classes is given below. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
Container 
The Container is a component in AWT that can contain other components like buttons, textfields, 
labels etc. The classes that extend Container class are known as container such as Frame, Dialog 
and Panel.  MRCET UNIT-V JP NOTES III B.TCH. I SEM 
JAVA PROGRAMMING Page 82


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JAVA PROGRAMMING Page 82 
 
 
 
Window 
The window is the container that has no borders and menu bars. You must use frame, dialog or 
another window for creating a window. 
Panel 
The Panel is the container that doesn't contain title bar and menu bars. It can have other 
components like button, textfield etc. 
Frame 
The Frame is the container that contain title bar and can have menu bars. It can have other 
components like button, textfield etc. 
Useful Methods of Component class


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Useful Methods of Component class 
Method Description 
public void add(Component c) inserts a component on this component. 
public void setSize(int width,int height) sets the size(width and height) of the component. 
public void setLayout(LayoutManager m) defines the layout manager for the component. 
public void setVisible(boolean status) changes the visibility of the component, by 
default false. 
Listeners and Listener Methods:


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default false. 
Listeners and Listener Methods: 
Listeners are available for components. A Listener is an interface that listens to an event from a  
component. Listeners are available in java.awt.event package . The methods in the listener  
interface are to be implemented, when using that listener. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
Layout Managers  MRCET UNIT-V JP NOTES III B.TCH. I SEM 
JAVA PROGRAMMING Page 83


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JAVA PROGRAMMING Page 83 
 
 
 
A layout manager arranges the child components of a container. It positions and sets the size of  
components within the container's display area according to a particular layout scheme. 
The layout manager's job is to fit the components into the available area , while maintaining the  
proper spatial relationships between the components. AWT comes with a few standard layout


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managers that will collectively handle most situations; you can make your own layout managers  
if you have special requirements. 
LayoutManager at work 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
Every container has a default layout manager ; therefore, when you make a new container, it  
comes with a LayoutManager object  of the appropriate type. You can install a new layout  
manager at  any time with the setLayout() method. Below, we  set the layout  manager of a  
container to a BorderLayout:


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container to a BorderLayout: 
setLayout ( new BorderLayout( ) ); 
Every component determines three important pieces of information used by the layout manager  
in placing and sizing it: a minimum size, a maximum size, and a preferred size. 
These are reported by the getMinimumSize(), getMaximumSize(), and getPreferredSize(), 
methods of Component, respectively. 
When a layout manager is called to arrange its components, it is working within a fixed area. It


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usually begins by looking at  its container's dimensions, and the preferred or  minimum sizes of  
the child components. 
Layout manager types 
Flow Layout 
FlowLayout is a simple layout manager that tries to arrange components with their preferred  
sizes, from left to right and top to botto m in the display. A FlowLayout can have a specified  
justification of LEFT, CENTER, or RIGHT, and a fixed horizontal and vertical padding.


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By default, a flow layout uses CENTER justification, meaning that all components are centered  
within the area allotted to them. FlowLayout is the default for Panel components like Applet.  MRCET UNIT-V JP NOTES III B.TCH. I SEM 
JAVA PROGRAMMING Page 84 
 
 
 
The following applet adds five buttons to the default FlowLayout. 
import java.awt.*; 
/* 
<applet code="Flow" width="500" height="500"> 
</applet> 
*/ 
public class Flow extends java.applet.Applet 
{ 
public void init() 
{


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{ 
public void init() 
{ 
//Default for Applet is FlowLayout 
add( new Button("One") ); 
add( new Button("Two") ); 
add( new Button("Three") ); 
add( new Button("Four") ); 
add( new Button("Five") ); 
} 
} 
If the applet is small enough, some of the buttons spill over to a second or third row. 
Grid Layout 
GridLayout arranges components into regularly spaced rows and columns. The components  
are arbitrarily resized to fit in the resulting areas; their minimum and preferred sizes are


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consequently ignored. 
GridLayout is most useful for  arranging very regular,  identically sized  objects and for 
allocating space for Panels to hold other layouts in each region of the container. 
GridLayout takes the number of rows and columns in its construc tor. If you subsequently  
give it too many objects to manage,  it adds extra columns to  make the objects fit. You can also  
set the number of rows or columns to zero, which means that you don't care how many elements


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the layout manager packs in that dimension. 
For example, GridLayout(2,0) requests a layout with two rows and an unlimited number of 
columns; if you put ten components into this layout, you'll get two rows of five columns each.  
The following applet sets a GridLayout with three rows and two  columns as its layout  
manager; 
import java.awt.*; 
/* 
<applet code="Grid" width="500" 
height="500"> </applet> 
*/ 
public class Grid extends java.applet.Applet 
{ 
public void init() 
{


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{ 
public void init() 
{ 
setLayout( new GridLayout( 3, 2 ));  MRCET UNIT-V JP NOTES III B.TCH. I SEM 
JAVA PROGRAMMING Page 85 
 
 
 
add( new Button("One") ); 
add( new Button("Two") ); 
add( new Button("Three") ); 
add( new Button("Four") ); 
add( new Button("Five") ); 
} 
} 
 
The five buttons are laid out, in order, from left to right, top to bottom, with one empty spot. 
Border Layout 
BorderLayout is a little more interesting. It tries to arrange objects in one of five geographical


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locations: "North," "South," "East," "West," and "Center," possibly with some padding between. 
BorderLayout is the default layout for Window and Frame objects. Because each 
component is associated with a direction, BorderLayout can manage at most five components; it 
squashes or stretches those components to fit its constraints. 
When we add a component to a border layout, we need to specify both the component and the


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position at which to add it. To do so, we use an overloaded version of the add() method that 
takes an additional argument as a constraint. 
The following applet sets a BorderLayout layout and adds our five buttons again, named for their 
locations; 
 
import java.awt.*; 
/* 
<applet code="Border" width="500" height="500"> 
</applet> 
*/ 
public class Border extends java.applet.Applet 
{ 
public void init() 
{ 
setLayout( new java.awt.BorderLayout() );


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{ 
setLayout( new java.awt.BorderLayout() ); 
add( new Button("North"), "North" ); add( 
new Button("East"), "East" ); 
add( new Button("South"), "South" ); 
add( new Button("West"), "West" ); 
add( new Button("Center"), "Center" ); 
} 
} 
 
Compile: javac Border.java 
Run : appletviewer Border.java  MRCET UNIT-V JP NOTES III B.TCH. I SEM 
JAVA PROGRAMMING Page 86 
 
 
 
Java AWT Example 
To create simple awt example, you need a frame. There are two ways to create a frame in AWT.


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// By extending Frame class (inheritance) 
2. By creating the object of Frame class (association) 
Simple example of AWT by inheritance 
import java.awt.*; 
class First extends Frame{ 
First(){ 
Button b=new Button("click me"); 
b.setBounds(30,100,80,30);// setting button position 
add(b);//adding button into frame 
setSize(300,300);//frame size 300 width and 300 
height setLayout(null);//no layout manager 
setVisible(true);//now frame will be visible }


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setVisible(true);//now frame will be visible } 
 
public static void main(String args[]){ 
First f=new First(); 
} 
} 
Simple example of AWT by association 
import java.awt.*; 
class First2{ 
First2(){ 
Frame f=new Frame(); 
Button b=new Button("click me"); 
b.setBounds(30,50,80,30); 
f.add(b); 
f.setSize(300,300); 
f.setLayout(null); 
f.setVisible(true); 
} 
public static void main(String args[]){ 
First2 f=new First2(); 
} 
}  MRCET UNIT-V JP NOTES III B.TCH. I SEM 
JAVA PROGRAMMING Page 87


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JAVA PROGRAMMING Page 87 
 
 
 
AWT controls 
Labels: 
The easiest control to use is a label. A label is an object of type Label, and it contains a string, 
which it displays. Labels are passive controls that do not support any interaction with the user. 
// Demonstrate 
Labels import 
java.awt.*; import 
java.applet.*; /* 
<applet code="LabelDemo" width=300 height=200> 
</applet> */ 
public class LabelDemo extends Applet 
{ 
public void init() 
{ 
Label one = new Label("One");


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{ 
Label one = new Label("One"); 
Label two = new Label("Two"); 
Label three = new Label("Three"); 
add labels to applet window 
add(one); 
add(two); 
add(three); 
} 
} 
Buttons: 
The most widely used control is the push button. A push button is a component that contains a 
label and that generates an event when it is pressed. Push buttons are objects of type Button. 
Button class is useful to create push buttons. A push button triggers a series of events.


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To create push button: Button b1 =new Button("label"); 
To get the label of the button: String l = b1.getLabel(); 
To set the label of the button: b1.setLabel("label"); 
To get the label of the button clicked: String str = ae.getActionCommand(); 

\{ Demonstrate Buttons 
import java.awt.*; 
import java.awt.event.*; 
import java.applet.*; 
/* <applet code="ButtonDemo" width=250 height=150> 
</applet> */ 
 
public class ButtonDemo extends Applet implements ActionListener 
{ 
String msg = "";


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{ 
String msg = ""; 
Button yes, no, maybe;  MRCET UNIT-V JP NOTES III B.TCH. I SEM 
JAVA PROGRAMMING Page 88 
 
 
 
public void init() 
{ 
yes = new Button("Yes"); 
no = new Button("No"); 
maybe = new Button("Undecided"); 
add(yes); 
add(no); 
add(maybe); 
yes.addActionListener(this); 
no.addActionListener(this); 
maybe.addActionListener(this); 
} 
 
public void actionPerformed(ActionEvent ae) 
{ 
String str = ae.getActionCommand(); 
if(str.equals("Yes")) 
{ 
msg = "You pressed Yes."; 
}


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{ 
msg = "You pressed Yes."; 
} 
else if(str.equals("No")) 
{ 
msg = "You pressed No."; 
} 
else 
{ 
msg = "You pressed Undecided."; 
} 
repaint(); 
} 
public void paint(Graphics g) 
{ 
g.drawString(msg, 6, 100); 
} 
} 
 
Check Boxes: 
A check box is a control that is used to turn an option on or off. It consists of a small box that  
can either contain a check mark or not. There is a label associated with each check box that


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describes what option the box represents. You change the  state of a check box by clicking on  
it. Check boxes can be used individually or as part of a group. 
 
\{  Demonstrate check boxes. 
import java.awt.*; 
import java.awt.event.*; 
import java.applet.*;  MRCET UNIT-V JP NOTES III B.TCH. I SEM 
} 
} 
JAVA PROGRAMMING Page 89 
 
 
 
/* 
<applet code="CheckboxDemo" width=250 height=200> 
</applet> 
*/ 
public class CheckboxDemo extends Applet implements ItemListener 
{ 
String msg = "";


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{ 
String msg = ""; 
checkbox Win98, winNT, solaris, mac; 
 
public void init() 
{ 
win98 = new Checkbox("Windows 98/XP", null, true); 
winNT = new Checkbox("Windows NT/2000"); 
solaris = new Checkbox("Solaris"); mac = new 
Checkbox("MacOS"); 
add(Win98); 
add(winNT); 
add(solaris); 
add(mac); 
Win98.addItemListener(this); 
winNT.addItemListener(this); 
solaris.addItemListener(this); 
mac.addItemListener(this); 
} 
public void itemStateChanged(ItemEvent ie) 
{ 
repaint(); 
}


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{ 
repaint(); 
} 
// Display current state of the check boxes. 
 
public void paint(Graphics g) 
{ 
msg = "Current state: "; 
g.drawString(msg, 6, 80); 
msg = " Windows 98/XP: " + Win98.getState(); 
g.drawString(msg, 6, 100); 
msg = " Windows NT/2000: " + winNT.getState(); 
g.drawString(msg, 6, 120); 
msg = " Solaris: " + solaris.getState(); 
g.drawString(msg, 6, 140); 
msg = " MacOS: " + mac.getState(); 
g.drawString(msg, 6, 160);  MRCET UNIT-V JP NOTES III B.TCH. I SEM 
} 
}


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} 
} 
JAVA PROGRAMMING Page 90 
 
 
 
TextField: 
The TextField class implements a single -line text-entry area, usually called an edit control.  
Text fields allow the user to enter strings and to edit the text using the arrow keys, cut  and 
paste keys, and mouse selections. 
// Demonstrate text field. 
import java.awt.*; 
import 
java.awt.event.*; 
import java.applet.*; 
/* 
<applet code="TextFieldDemo" width=380 height=150> 
</applet> 
*/


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</applet> 
*/ 
public class TextFieldDemo extends Applet implements ActionListener 
{ 
TextField name, pass; 
 
public void init() 
{ 
Label namep = new Label("Name: ", Label.RIGHT); 
Label passp = new Label("Password: ", Label.RIGHT); 
name = new TextField(12); 
pass = new TextField(8); 
pass.setEchoChar('?'); 
add(namep); 
add(name); 
add(passp); 
add(pass); 
// register to receive action events  
name.addActionListener(this); 
pass.addActionListener(this); 
} 
// User pressed Enter.


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} 
// User pressed Enter. 
public void actionPerformed(ActionEvent ae) 
{ 
repaint(); 
} 
public void paint(Graphics g) 
{ 
g.drawString("Name: " + name.getText(), 6, 60); 
g.drawString("Selected text in name: " + name.getSelectedText(), 6, 80); 
g.drawString("Password: " + pass.getText(), 6, 100);  MRCET UNIT-V JP NOTES III B.TCH. I SEM 
JAVA PROGRAMMING Page 91 
 
 
 
TextArea: 
Sometimes a single line of text input is not enough for a given task. To handle these


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situations, the AWT includes a simple multiline editor called TextArea . 
 
\{ Demonstrate 
TextArea. import 
java.awt.*; import 
java.applet.*; 
/* 
<applet code="TextAreaDemo" width=300 
height=250> </applet> 
*/ 
public class TextAreaDemo extends Applet 
{ 
public void init() 
{ 
String val = "There are two ways of constructing " + "a software design. \n" + "One way is to  
make it so simple \n" + "that there are obviously no deficiencies. \n" + "And the other way is to


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make it so complicated\n" + "that there are no obvious deficiencies.\n\n" + " -C.A.R. Hoare\n\n" 
+ "There's an old story about the person who  wished\n" + "his computer were as easy to  use as 
his telephone. \n" + "That wish has come true, \n" + "since I no longer know how to use my  
telephone.\n\n" + " -Bjarne Stroustrup, AT&T, (inventor of C++)"; 
TextArea text = new TextArea(val, 10, 30); 
add(text); 
} 
} 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
CheckboxGroup


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} 
} 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
CheckboxGroup 
It is possible to create a set of mutually exclusive check boxes in which one and only one  
check box in the group can be checked at any one time. These check boxes are often called  
radio buttons. A Radio button represents a round shaped button such that only one can be  
selected from a panel. Radio button can be created using CheckboxGroup class and 
Checkbox classes.  JAVA PROGRAMMING Page 92 
 
 
MRCET UNIT-V JP NOTES III B.TCH. I SEM


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MRCET UNIT-V JP NOTES III B.TCH. I SEM 
 
· To create a radio button: CheckboxGroup cbg = new CheckboxGroup (); 
Checkbox cb = new Checkbox ("label", cbg, true); 
· To know the selected checkbox: Checkbox cb = cbg.getSelectedCheckbox (); 
·To know the selected checkbox label: String label = cbg.getSelectedCheckbox().getLabel (); 
 
\{ Demonstrate check box group. 
import java.awt.*; 
import java.awt.event.*; 
import java.applet.*; 
 
/* 
<applet code="CBGroup" width=250 height=200>


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/* 
<applet code="CBGroup" width=250 height=200> 
</applet> 
*/ 
 
public class CBGroup extends Applet implements ItemListener 
{ 
String msg = ""; 
Checkbox Win98, winNT, solaris, mac; 
CheckboxGroup cbg; 
public void init() { 
cbg = new CheckboxGroup(); 
Win98 = new Checkbox("Windows 98/XP", cbg, true); 
winNT = new Checkbox("Windows NT/2000", cbg, false); 
solaris = new Checkbox("Solaris", cbg, false); mac = new 
Checkbox("MacOS", cbg, false); 
add(Win98); 
add(winNT); 
add(solaris);


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add(Win98); 
add(winNT); 
add(solaris); 
add(mac); 
Win98.addItemListener(this); 
winNT.addItemListener(this); 
solaris.addItemListener(this); 
mac.addItemListener(this); 
} 
public void itemStateChanged(ItemEvent ie) { 
repaint(); 
} 
\{ Display current state of the check 
boxes. public void paint(Graphics g) { 
msg = "Current selection: "; 
msg += cbg.getSelectedCheckbox().getLabel(); 
g.drawString(msg, 6, 100); 
} 
}  JAVA PROGRAMMING Page 93 
 
 
MRCET UNIT-V JP NOTES III B.TCH. I SEM


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MRCET UNIT-V JP NOTES III B.TCH. I SEM 
Choice Controls 
The Choice class is used to create a pop-up list of items from which the user may choose. 
Thus, a Choice control is a form of menu. Choice menu is a popdown list of items. Only 
one item can be selected. 
· To create a choice menu: Choice ch = new Choice(); 
· To add items to the choice menu: ch.add ("text"); 
· To know the name of the item selected from the choice menu: 
String s = ch.getSelectedItem ();


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String s = ch.getSelectedItem (); 
· To know the index of the currently selected item: int i = ch.getSelectedIndex(); 
This method returns -1, if nothing is selected. 
//Demonstrate Choice 
lists. import 
java.awt.*; import 
java.awt.event.*; 
import java.applet.*; 
/* 
<applet code="ChoiceDemo" width=300 
height=180> </applet> 
*/ 
public class ChoiceDemo extends Applet implements ItemListener 
{ Choice os, browser; 
String msg = ""; public 
void init() { os = new 
Choice(); browser = new


