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For plants to grow properly, you have to water them regularly.
126 For and of with a to-infinitivePAGE 157 14 THE INFINITIVE
127 Patterns with the bare infinitive
1 After a modal verb
Nothing can go wrong. They must be having a party next door.
You should be more careful. You could have made the tea.
But note ought to, have to, be able to, be allowed to and be going to.
You ought to be more careful. You have to put some money in.


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I was able to get home OK. We aren't allowed to walk on the grass.
2 After had better, would rather/would sooner and
rather than
We'd better not be late.
I didn't enjoy it. I'd rather have stayed at home.
They decided to accept the offer rather than go/going to court.
3 Verb + object + bare infinitive
a Make, let and have can take an object + bare infinitive.
The official made me fill in a form.
The headmaster let the pupils go home early.
I'll have the porter bring up your luggage. • 111(1)


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NOTE
Force, allow and get take a to-infinitive.
The official forced me to fill in a form.
The headmaster allowed the pupils to go home early.
I'll get the porter to bring up your luggage.
b A verb of perception can take an object + bare infinitive.
Someone saw the men leave the building.
I thought I heard someone knock on the door.
For more details, • 140(1b).
c When the pattern with the bare infinitive is made passive, we always use a
to-infinitive. • 110(1b)


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to-infinitive. • 110(1b)
The men were seen to leave the building at half past six.
4 Other patterns
a After except and but (= except) we normally use a bare infinitive.
As for the housework, I do everything except cook.
You've done nothing but grumble all day.
b We sometimes put an infinitive after be when we are explaining what kind of
action we mean.
The only thing I can do is (to) apologize.
What the police did was (to) charge into the crowd.
c For Why worry?, • 26(5).
PAGE 158 15The gerund


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c For Why worry?, • 26(5).
PAGE 158 15The gerund
128 Summary
Gerund forms • 129
A gerund is an ing-form, e.g. walking.
Walking is good for you.
Gerund clauses • 130
We can put an object or adverbial after the gerund.
I like having friends round for coffee.
The gerund can also have a subject.
I don't mind you/your having friends round.
Some patterns with the gerund •131
Finding the money wasn't easy.
It wasn't easy finding the money.
The difficult part was finding the money.


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The difficult part was finding the money.
We practised catching the ball.
I don't like people bossing me around.
Preposition + gerund • 132
I apologized for being late.
Are you interested in buying this car?
I ran all the way home without stopping.
Determiner + gerund • 133
The dancing went on late into the night.
129 Gerund forms
1 Active Passive
Simple playing being played
Perfect having played having been played
For examples of the passive, • 112.
PAGE 159 15 THE GERUND PAGE 160


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PAGE 159 15 THE GERUND PAGE 160
2 A simple gerund is the ing-form of a verb, e.g. meeting, dancing, jogging.
It was nice meeting you.
Dancing is not allowed.
NOTE
a There are some spelling rules for the ing-form.
Leaving out e: lose losing • 292(1)
Doubling of some consonants: stop stopping • 293
b An ing-form can be a gerund or an active participle, depending on how we use it in a
sentence.
Gerund: Jogging is good for you.
Participle: We watched the students jogging round the campus.


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But in some contexts it may be difficult to say whether an ing-form is a gerund or
participle, and it is not always important to know the difference. Remember that using the
form correctly is more important than naming it.
3 We use a perfect gerund for something before the time of the main clause.
Sarah remembered having visited the place before.
(The visit was before the memory.)
But we do not need to use the perfect if it is clear from the context that the time
was earlier.


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was earlier.
Sarah remembered visiting the place before.
4 In the negative, not comes before the gerund.
It's difficult not smoking for a whole day.
I can't help not being amused by these silly jokes.
130 Gerund clauses
1 A gerund clause can be just a gerund on its own, or there can be an object or
adverbial after it.
No one likes washing the car.
Going on holiday always makes me feel uneasy.
NOTE
a For letter-writing, sky-diving, • 283(3).


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NOTE
a For letter-writing, sky-diving, • 283(3).
b An adverb can sometimes come before the gerund rather than after it.
We didn't want to risk completely spoiling the evening.
2 A subject can come before the gerund.
We rely on our neighbours watering the plants while we're away.
I dislike people asking me personal questions.
The subject can be possessive, especially when it is a personal pronoun or a name.
It's a bit inconvenient you/your coming in late.
Do you mind me/my sitting here?


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Do you mind me/my sitting here?
I'm fed up with Sarah/Sarah's laughing at my accent.
The possessive is more formal, and it is less usual in everyday speech.
But we are more likely to use a possessive at the beginning of a sentence.
Your coming in late is a bit inconvenient.
Sarah's laughing at my accent is getting on my nerves. 131 Some patterns with the gerund
1 Gerund clause as subject
Digging is hard work. But choosing the colour won't be easy.
Keeping a copy of your letters is a good idea.


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Keeping a copy of your letters is a good idea.
I think walking in the country is a lovely way to spend a day.
In subject position, the gerund is much more usual than the to-infinitive. To
choose the colour... is possible but rather formal.
We can also use the empty subject Preferring forward to the gerund clause. • 50(5)
It won't be easy choosing the right colour.
But the to-infinitive is more usual after it.
It won't be easy to choose the right colour.


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It won't be easy to choose the right colour.
It's a good idea to keep a copy of your letters.
The gerund is more usual as subject, but the to-infinitive is more usual after it.
Heating a big house is expensive. It's expensive to heat a big house.
131 Some patterns with the gerundPAGE 161
2 Patterns with it, there and have
a Here are some patterns with it and a gerund.
It's no good arguing. I've made up my mind.
It might be worth taking the guided tour.


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It might be worth taking the guided tour.
It wouldn't be much use trying to stick the pieces together again.
It was quite an experience going camping.
It's a nuisance being without electricity.
It's great fun skiing down a mountain.
NOTE
a After use, experience, nuisance and fun we can also use a to-infinitive.
b There are also these patterns with worth.
It might be worth it to take the guided tour. The guided tour might be worth taking.
b We can use there with problem/difficulty and a gerund.


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There won't be any problem parking.
c There is also a pattern with have (= experience) and a gerund.
You won't have any problem parking.
We had great fun skiing down the mountain.
3 Gerund clause as complement after he
Jeremy's hobby is inventing computer games.
What I suffer from is not being able to sleep.
4 Verb + gerund
a We can use a gerund after some verbs.
Someone suggested going for a walk. Do you mind waiting a moment?


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I can't help feeling depressed sometimes. Imagine never having been abroad.
For a list of verbs taking the gerund or to-infinitive, •121. b Sometimes we can use a finite clause. • 262(1)
Someone suggested (that) we might go out for a walk.
But with some verbs this is not possible.
NOT I've finished that I tidy my room.
5 Verb + object + gerund
I hate people laughing at me.
The arrangements involve you/your giving everyone a lift. • 130(2)
How can they justify lives being put at risk?


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How can they justify lives being put at risk?
We can use an object + gerund after these verbs:
avoid (not) forget love prefer risk
can't help hate mean prevent save
dislike imagine mention remember stop
dread involve mind resent tolerate
enjoy justify miss resist understand
excuse like
NOTE
For an object + infinitive after some verbs of wanting and liking, • 122(2d).
I hate people to laugh at me.
132 Preposition + gerund
1 Introduction


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132 Preposition + gerund
1 Introduction
a A gerund often comes after a verb + preposition, an adjective + preposition or a
noun + preposition. We do not use a to-infinitive in these patterns.
We believe in giving people the freedom to choose.
My husband isn't very good at cooking.
It's just a matter of filling in a form.
b We can also use a gerund after than, as and like expressing comparison.
A holiday is nicer than sitting at a desk.
Walking isn't as good for you as swimming.


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Walking isn't as good for you as swimming.
We can also use a gerund after as well as, instead of without etc. • (8)
2 The pattern I succeeded in finding out
Jake is thinking of selling his motor-bike.
Sue insists on reading the letter.
Let's get on with addressing the envelopes.
We can use a gerund after these prepositional verbs:
admit to benefit from get on with rely on
(dis)agree with care for insist on resort to
aim at confess to object to succeed in
apologize for count on pay for think of


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apologize for count on pay for think of
(dis)approve of depend on put up with vote for
believe in feel like
PAGE 16215 THE GERUND PAGE 163 132 Preposition + gerund
We can also use verbs with about e.g. talk about, think about, worry about.
People were complaining about having to walk so far.
With most of the verbs in this pattern, the gerund can have a subject.
Sue insists on everyone reading the letter.
3 The pattern They prevented me from speaking


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3 The pattern They prevented me from speaking
A gerund can also follow a verb + object + preposition.
I'd like to congratulate you on breaking the world record.
The article accuses the government of concealing important information.
We can use:
accuse ...of
blame... for
charge... with
congratulate ...on
deter... from forgive... for stop... from
discourage... from prevent... from strike ...as
excuse... for punish... for thank... for
excuse... from remind ...of use... for


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excuse... from remind ...of use... for
a We can also use verbs with about, e.g. tell, inform, warn.
I warned you about leaving your money around.
b In the passive, the preposition comes directly after the verb.
The government is accused of concealing important information.
4 The pattern She's keen on riding
A gerund can follow an adjective + preposition.
I'm nervous of saying the wrong thing.
What's wrong with borrowing a little money?
We can use:
afraid of
amazed at
angry about/at


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We can use:
afraid of
amazed at
angry about/at
annoyed about/at
anxious about
ashamed of
aware of
bad at
bored with
capable of
content with
dependent on
different from/to
exited about/at
famous for
fed up with
fond of
good at
grateful for
guilty of
happy about/with
interested in
keen on
nervous of
pleased about/with
ready for
responsible for
satisfied with
sorry about/for
successful in
surprised at
used to • 100(2c)
worried about
wrong with
5 For joining and to join


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wrong with
5 For joining and to join
a After some verbs and adjectives we can use either a preposition + gerund or a
to-infinitive, with no difference in meaning.
The people voted for joining/voted to join the European Community.
We can use these expressions:
aim at doing/to do
amazed at finding/to find
angry at finding/to find
annoyed at finding/to find
content with being/to be
grateful for having/to have
pay for having/to have
ready for taking/to take
satisfied with being/to be


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satisfied with being/to be
thankful for having/to have
surprised at finding/to find
vote for doing/to do 15 THE GERUND PAGE 164
b But sometimes the to-infinitive has a different meaning from the preposition +
gerund. Details are in the notes below.
NOTE
a Agree with means to think that something is right, but agree to means to make a decision.
I don't agree with cutting down trees. I think it's wrong.
We all agreed to meet the next day.


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We all agreed to meet the next day.
b We use tell... about and remind... of to report statements and thoughts.
I told you about losing my credit card, didn't I?
This reminds me of climbing Ben Nevis years ago.
But tell/remind someone to do something reports an order or reminder.
I told you to keep that card safe.
Why didn't you remind me to bring a compass?
c Keen on/interested in usually means a general interest, but keen to/interested to means a
wish to do a particular thing.


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wish to do a particular thing.
Simon is keen on cycling/interested in cycling. He does quite a lot of it.
Simon is keen to go on the trip. He's never cycled in Scandinavia before.
Simon was interested to hear about your cycle tour.
d Happy about and pleased about express pleasure. We can also use a to-infinitive.
Sam was pleased about winning/pleased to win a prize.
Happy to and pleased to are also often used in polite statements.


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I'm pleased to meet you. We shall be pleased to accept your offer.
e Afraid to can only express unwillingness caused by fear. Afraid of can have the same
meaning, or it can express fear about what might happen.
Many old people are afraid to cross/afraid of crossing the road in case they have an
accident.
Many old people are afraid of having an accident when they cross the road.
NOT afraid to have an accident
f Anxious to means 'wanting to', but anxious about means 'worried about'.


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I'm anxious to get this business settled quickly.
Rodney was anxious about making a mistake.
g Ashamed of expresses shame about something. Ashamed to expresses unwillingness
caused by shame.
I do feel rather ashamed of having told Lucy a lie.
I don't think Rex can afford to pay us back, but I expect he's ashamed to admit it.
h Sorry about/for or sorry to have done expresses an apology for an earlier action. Sorry with a
simple to-infinitive expresses an apology for a present action.


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I'm sorry for causing/sorry to have caused all that trouble yesterday.
Sorry to disturb you, but can I have a word?
We also use sorry with a simple to-infinitive to express regret about what we say or hear.
I'm sorry to have to say this, but your work is far from satisfactory.
I was sorry to hear your bad news.
6 To do or to doing?
To can be part of a to-infinitive, or it can be a preposition.
I hope to see you soon. (hope + to-infinitive)


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I hope to see you soon. (hope + to-infinitive)
I look forward to seeing you soon. (look forward to + gerund)
We can also put a noun phrase after the preposition to.
I look forward to next weekend.
We can use a gerund (but not an infinitive) with the verbs admit to, confess to, face
up to, look forward to, object to, prefer ...to, resort to, take to; the adjectives
accustomed to, close to, opposed to, resigned to, used to; and the preposition in
addition to.


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addition to.
NOTE For used to do and used to doing, • 100(2c). 132 Preposition + gerund
7 The pattern my success in finding out
Some verbs and adjectives can take a preposition + gerund, e.g. succeed in doing,
grateful for having. We can also use a preposition + gerund after a related noun.
I noticed Jeffs success in getting the price reduced.
We expressed our gratitude for having had the opportunity.
Some other nouns can also take a preposition + gerund.


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How would you like the idea of living in a caravan?
There's a small advantage in moving first.
We can use these expressions:
advantage of/in excitement about/at possibility of
aim of/in expense of/in problem of/in
amazement at par of prospect of
anger about/at gratitude for purpose of/in
annoyance about/at idea of question about/of
anxiety about insistence on reason for
apology for interest in satisfaction with
awareness of job of success in
belief in matter of surprise at


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belief in matter of surprise at
boredom with objection to task of
danger of/in pleasure of/in work of
difficulty (in) point of/in worry about
effect of
8 The pattern before leaving
a Please switch off the lights before leaving.
Instead of landing at Heathrow, we had to go to Manchester.
The picture was hung upside down without anyone noticing it.
She succeeded in business by being completely single-minded.
How about coming round this evening?


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How about coming round this evening?
I still feel tired in spite of having slept eight hours.
Despite your reminding me, I forgot.
We can use a gerund after these prepositions:
after besides in on account of
against by in addition to since
as a result of by means of in favour of through
as well as despite in spite of what about
because of for instead of with
before how about on without
NOTE
a A similar pattern is conjunction + participle. • 139(3)


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Although having slept eight hours, I still feel tired.
b On and in have special meanings in this pattern.
On turning the corner, I saw a most unexpected sight.
(= As soon as I had turned the corner,...)
In building a new motorway, they attracted new industry to the area.
(= As a result of building a new motorway,...)
c We cannot use a passive participle.
The new drug was put on the market after being approved by the government.
NOT after approved and NOT after been approved


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NOT after approved and NOT after been approved
PAGE 165 15 THE GERUND
b We cannot use a finite clause or a to-infinitive after a preposition.
NOT instead of we landed and NOT instead of to land
NOTE
a For in spite of/despite the fact that, • 246(4).
b We can use a to-infinitive instead of for to express purpose. • 252(3)
These pages are for making/are to make notes on.
133 Determiner + gerund
1 The pattern the driving


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133 Determiner + gerund
1 The pattern the driving
We can use a gerund after the, this, that, some, no, a lot of, a little, a bit of and
much.
Nancy likes her new job, but the driving makes her tired.
This constant arguing gets on my nerves.
I'd like to find time for some fishing at the weekend.
No parking. (= Parking is not allowed.)
I've got a bit of shopping to do.
The + gerund is specific rather than general.
The driving makes her tired. (= the driving she does in her job)


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Driving makes her tired. (= all driving, driving in general)
NOTE
a We can use an adjective before a gerund.
My boss was fined for dangerous driving.
b A gerund is usually an uncountable noun, but we can sometimes use a/an or add a plural s.
I could hear a scratching under the floorboards.
The hostages suffered several beatings.
c A gerund means an action.
Crossing the road here is dangerous. Building is a skilled job.


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But there are also some nouns ending in ing which mean physical objects. These nouns
can be plural.
We had to wait at the crossing. The square is surrounded by tall buildings.
d For a driving lesson, • 283(2).
e For do the shopping and go shopping, • 138(2).
2 The pattern the driving of heavy lorries
a A gerund clause can have an object.
An important part of our work is keeping records.
Playing ball games is not allowed.
When we use a determiner + gerund, the object has of before it.


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An important part of our work is the keeping of records.
The playing of ball games is prohibited.
This pattern with of can be rather formal and is typical of an official, written style.
NOTE
Sometimes a noun phrase after of is the understood subject.
I was disturbed by the ringing of the telephone. (The telephone was ringing.)
b Instead of a gerund, we often use other abstract nouns in this pattern. • 149(3)
the management of small businesses the education of young children


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Here management and education are more usual than managing and educating.
PAGE 166 PAGE 167
16Participles
134 Summary
Participle forms • 135
A participle can be an ing-form like playing (active participle), or a form like
played, written (past or passive participle).
Participle clauses • 136
We can put an object or adverbial after the participle.
Kate fell asleep watching television last night.
A participle can also have a subject.
I waited, my heart beating fast.
Participle + noun • 137


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Participle + noun • 137
flashing lights recorded music
Verb + participle • 138
Well, I mustn't stand chatting here all day.
Participle clauses of time, reason etc • 139
I went wrong adding up these figures.
Having no money, we couldn't get in.
Verb + object + participle • 140
I saw you talking to the professor.
NOTE
For participles in finite verb phrases, • 60.
have + past participle: My watch has stopped.
be + active participle: The train was stopping.


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be + active participle: The train was stopping.
be + passive participle: We were stopped by a policeman.
For There was a bag lying/left on the table, • 50(3).
For The bag lying/left on the table is Sadie's, • 276.
135 Participle forms
1 Active Passive
playing Simple played
Continuous being played
Perfect having played having been played
Past played 16 PARTICIPLES
2 An active participle is the ing-form of a verb, e.g. laughing, waiting.
I heard you laughing. We sat there waiting patiently.


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This form is the same as a gerund. • 129(2)
3 A passive or past participle is a form such as covered, annoyed, broken, left.
Although covered by insurance, Tom was annoyed about the accident.
I stepped on some broken glass.
There were two parcels left on the doorstep.
A regular form ends in ed. For irregular forms, • 300.
4 A passive participle can be simple or continuous.
Simple: They wanted the snow cleared away.
Continuous: We saw the snow being cleared away.


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Continuous: We saw the snow being cleared away.
5 A participle can also be perfect.
Having waited an hour, the crowd were getting impatient.
Having been delayed for an hour, the concert started at nine o'clock.
6 In the negative, not comes before the participle.
He hesitated, not knowing what to do.
Not having been informed, we were completely in the dark.
136 Participle clauses
1 A participle clause can be just a participle on its own.
Everyone just stood there talking.


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Everyone just stood there talking.
There can be an object or adverbial.
We saw a policeman chasing someone.
Cut above the right eye, the boxer was unable to continue.
An adverbial usually comes after the participle, and an object always comes after it.
NOT We saw a policeman someone chasing.
NOTE For adverb + participle + noun, e.g. rapidly rising inflation, • 137(2).
2 A participle can sometimes have a subject.
The lights having gone out, we couldn't see a thing.


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If there is no subject, then it is understood to be the same as in the main clause.
The men sat round the table playing cards.
(The men were playing cards.)
NOTE
The understood subject is usually the same as in the main clause.
Walking across the field, we saw a plane fly past.
(= As we were walking..., we saw...)
We cannot use a main clause without we, the understood subject of the participle.
NOT Walking across the field, a plane flew past.


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NOT Walking across the field, a plane flew past.
This suggests that the plane was walking across the field, which is nonsense.
Now look at this example.
Sitting at a table, the band played for them.
This might lead to a misunderstanding because it suggests that the band was sitting at a table.
The following sentence is correct.
Sitting at a table, they listened to the band.
(= As they were sitting..., they listened...)


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(= As they were sitting..., they listened...)
PAGE 168 Here the understood subject of the participle is the same as the subject of the main clause.
But sometimes the subjects can be different when there is no danger of misunderstanding.
Knowing how little time she had, this new delay infuriated her.
(= Because she knew..., she was infuriated ...)
When adjusting the machine, the electricity supply should be disconnected.
(= When you adjust..., you should disconnect...)


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(= When you adjust..., you should disconnect...)
Here the understood subject of the participle can also be understood as the subject of the
main clause.
The subjects do not need to be the same when we use following (= after), considering (= in
view of) and regarding (= about).
Following the lecture, we were able to ask questions.
Considering the awful weather, our Open Day was a great success.
No action has been taken regarding your complaint.


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The subjects can also be different with strictly speaking, having said that and talking of. • 139(7)
137 Participle + noun
1 We can use an active or passive participle before a noun.
Active: Boiling water turns to steam. (= water which is boiling)
The team was welcomed by cheering crowds.
Passive: I had a reserved seat. (= a seat which had been reserved)
The experiment must be done under controlled conditions.
The terrorists used a stolen car.


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The terrorists used a stolen car.
This pattern is often neater than using a finite clause such as When water boils, it
turns to steam, or The terrorists used a car they had stolen. The participle modifies
the noun, like an adjective. Compare hot water, enthusiastic crowds, a special seat.
But we cannot always use the pattern. For example, we can say a barking dog but
NOT an eating dog.
137 Participle + nounPAGE 169
NOTE
a Be+ passive participle can express either a state or an action. • 105(4)


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State: The terrorists' car was stolen. It wasn't theirs.
Action: The car was stolen two days before the incident.
b For adjectives in ing and ed, e.g. amusing and amused, • 203.
2 Sometimes we put an adverb before the participle.
fanatically cheering crowds properly trained staff
We can also form compounds with adverbs or nouns.
a fast-growing economy a wood-burning stove handwritten notes
undercooked meat a nuclear-powered submarine
But we cannot use longer phrases.
NOT written in pencil notes


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NOT written in pencil notes
NOT at the top of their voices cheering crowds
But for notes written in pencil, • 276.
NOTE
Some participles can have a negative prefix.
an unsmiling face a disconnected telephone
3 We can use a few past participles in this pattern.
the escaped prisoner a retired teacher fallen rocks
NOTE
a Compare the passive and past participles.
Passive: the injured prisoner (The prisoner has been injured.)
Past: the escaped prisoner (The prisoner has escaped.)


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b For special participle forms, e.g. a sunken ship, • 301. 16 PARTICIPLES
4 We can sometimes add ed to a noun to form a similar kind of modifier.
a walled city (= a city with a wall)
This happens mostly with compounds.
a dark-haired man (= a man with dark hair)
a short-sleeved shirt (= a shirt with short sleeves)
138 Verb + participle
1 The pattern We stood watching
We can use a participle after stand, sit, lie, go and run.
The whole family stood waving in the road.


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The whole family stood waving in the road.
Karen sat at the table reading a newspaper.
The girl lay trapped under the wreckage for three days.
People ran screaming for help.
The two actions, for example the standing and the waving, happen at the
same time.
NOTE
We also use busy + active participle.
Angela was busy doing the accounts.
2 Go shopping and do the shopping
a We use go/come + active participle to talk about some activities away from the
home, especially leisure activities.


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home, especially leisure activities.
I'd love to go swimming. We went riding yesterday.
Come cycling with us. Mac goes jogging every morning.
b We use do the + gerund for some kinds of work, especially housework.
I usually do the washing at the weekend.
Someone comes in to do the cleaning for us.
Have you done the ironing yet?
NOTE
Go shopping usually means leisure shopping, for example for clothes. Do the shopping usually
means buying food.


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means buying food.
c We can use do some..., do a lot of/a bit of... etc for both leisure and work.
I once did some surfing in California.
Jeff does a lot of cooking, doesn't he?
I don't do much fishing these days.
I'm afraid we've got a lot of tidying up to do.
We can also use do + gerund.
I can't do sewing. I always make a mess of it.
We did trampolining once a week at school last year. 139 Participle clauses of time, reason etc
1 Time


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1 Time
a A clause with an active participle (e.g. playing, serving) means an action at the
same time as the action of the main clause.
Mike hurt his hand playing badminton.
We were rushing about serving tea to everyone.
NOTE For conjunction + participle, e.g. Mike hurt his hand while playing badminton, • (3).
b The participle clause can come first, but this is rather literary.
Coming up the steps, I fell over.
NOTE
But a gerund clause as subject of a sentence is not literary.


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Coming up the steps tired the old woman out.
c We can also use a participle clause when two short, connected actions are close in
time, even if they do not happen at exactly the same time.
Taking a note from her purse, she slammed it down on the counter.
Opening the file, the detective took out a newspaper cutting.
This pattern is rather literary. It is more neutral to use two main clauses.
She took a note from her purse and slammed it down on the counter.
NOTE


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NOTE
We mention the actions in the order they happen. The participle usually comes in the first
clause, but it can sometimes come in the second.
She took a note from her purse, slamming it down on the counter.
They complained about the room, the wife pointing out that they were promised
a sea view.
d We can also use a perfect participle for an action which comes before another
connected one.
Having filled his glass/Filling his glass, Max took a long drink.


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But when the first action is not short, we must use the perfect.
Having dug a hole in the road, the men just disappeared.
NOT Digging a hole in the road, the men just disappeared.
The clause with the perfect participle can come after the main clause.
They left the restaurant, having spent two hours over lunch.
e In the passive we can use a simple, continuous or perfect participle.
The old woman walked slowly to the lift, assisted by the porter.


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I don't want to stay out here being bitten by insects.
A hole having been dug, the men just disappeared.
139 Participle clauses of time, reason etcPAGE 171 16 PARTICIPLES PAGE 172
2 Comparison of patterns
a After he had left the building, the man hailed a taxi.
b After leaving the building,...
c After having left the building,...
d Having left the building,...
e Leaving the building,...
Sentence (a) is the most neutral in style and the most usual of these patterns in


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everyday speech. (b) is also fairly usual, although a little more formal. (c) is less
usual because after and having both repeat the idea of one action following the
other. (d) and (e) are rather literary. (e) means that the two actions were very close
in time.
3 Conjunction + participle
We can use an active or passive participle after when, whenever, while, once, until,
if and although.
You should wear gloves when using an electric saw.


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Once opened, the contents should be consumed within three days.
Although expecting the news, I was greatly shocked by it.
This pattern is a little more formal than a finite clause such as when you use an
electric saw. It is common in instructions.
NOTE
a We can also use a passive participle after as, e.g. as seen on TV.
b A similar pattern is preposition + gerund. • 132(8)
4 Reason
a A participle clause can express reason.
Crowds were waiting at the airport, hoping to see Madonna arrive.


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(= ... because they were hoping to see her arrive.)
Not feeling very well, James decided to lie down.
Having lost my passport, I have to apply for a new one.
The restaurant having closed, there was nowhere to eat.
Being rather busy, I completely forgot the time.
The participle clause can be rather literary. For other ways of expressing
reason, •251.
b In the passive we can use a simple, continuous or perfect participle.
He died at thirty, struck down by a rare disease.


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He died at thirty, struck down by a rare disease.
In summer the ducks have it easy, always being fed by tourists.
Having been renovated at great expense, the building looks magnificent.
c We can use with before a participle clause with a subject.
With prices going up so fast, we can't afford luxuries.
It was a large room, with bookshelves covering most of the walls. PAGE 173 140 Verb + object + participle
5 Result
An active participle after the main clause can express result.


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They pumped waste into the river, killing all the fish.
The film star made a dramatic entrance, attracting everyone's attention.
6 Conditions
A participle clause can express a condition.
All being well, we should be home about six.
(= If all is well,...)
We plan to eat outside, weather permitting.
Taken daily, vitamin pills can improve your health.
7 Idioms
We can use a participle clause in some idiomatic phrases which comment on a
statement or relate it to a previous one.


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statement or relate it to a previous one.
Strictly speaking, you can't come in here unless you're a club member.
Things don't look too good. But having said that, there are still grounds for
optimism.
I'm going on a computer course next week. ~ Talking of computers, ours broke
down yesterday.
140 Verb + object + participle
l The pattern I saw you doing it
a I saw two men cutting down a tree.
We heard you arguing with your brother.
Can you smell something burning?


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Can you smell something burning?
We can use an object + active participle after these verbs of perception: see, watch,
notice, observe; hear, listen to; feel; smell.
b A verb of perception can also take an object + bare infinitive.
I saw two men cut down a tree.
We didn't notice anyone leave the building.
A bare infinitive means the complete action, but the participle means action for a
period of time, whether or not we see the whole action.
I saw them cut the tree down. It didn't take long.


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(= I saw them. They cut it down.)
I saw them cutting the tree down as I went past.
(= I saw them. They were cutting it down.)
But when we talk about a short action, we can use either pattern.
Bernard watched the horse jump/jumping the fence.
We didn't notice anyone leave/leaving the building.
NOTE
We can use these passive forms.
We saw the lions fed. We saw the lions being fed. 2 The pattern I kept you waiting
The trainer had the players running round the field.


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We soon got the machine working again.
Doctor Jones is rather slow. He often keeps his patients waiting.
The driver left us standing at the side of the road.
They caught a student cheating in the exam.
We can use an object + active participle after have, get, start, keep, leave, find and
catch. The participle here means action for a period of time.
NOTE
a We can also use a passive participle.
We had/got the machine repaired. • 111 (2)
Police found a body buried in the garden.


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Police found a body buried in the garden.
b After have, get and leave we can use an infinitive for an action seen as a whole.
The trainer had the players run/got the players to run round the field. • 111(1)
The driver left us to find our own way home.
c We can also use have in the sense of 'have something happening to you'.
Rory suddenly realized he had two dogs following him.
I won't have people treating this house like a hotel.
3 The pattern I spent some time waiting


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3 The pattern I spent some time waiting
I've spent half an hour looking for that letter.
The company wasted millions of pounds investing in out-of-date technology.
We can also use a participle after spend, waste or lose and an expression of time or
money.
4 The pattern You were seen doing it • 110(2)
The men were seen cutting down a tree.
We were left standing at the side of the road.
5 The pattern I want it done
Pamela wanted the carpet (to be) cleaned.


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Pamela wanted the carpet (to be) cleaned.
I'd like this drawing (to be) photocopied, please.
We prefer the lights (to be) turned down.
We can use an object + passive participle (or passive to-infinitive) after want, need,
(would) like, (would) love, (would) prefer and (would) hate.
16 PARTICIPLES PAGE 174 PAGE 175
17Nouns and noun phrases
141 Summary
Nouns • 142
Nouns are words like cup, democracy, game, driver, Chicago. They do not have


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special endings to show that they are nouns, or to show that they are subject or
object.
Noun phrases • 143
A noun combines with other words in a noun phrase.
the cup our democracy an exciting game
Determiners, quantifiers and modifiers come in a fixed order before the noun.
my three brothers both the clocks a blue van
Countable and uncountable nouns • 144
Countable nouns can be singular or plural.
house(s) telephone(s) problem(s)
Uncountable nouns are neither singular nor plural.


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music happiness butter
We cannot use an uncountable noun with a/an. NOT a butter
But we can say a pound of butter.
Some nouns can be either countable or uncountable, depending on the context.
peel an onion/a pizza with onion
The plural of nouns • 145
We use the plural for more than one, and for a negative or unknown quantity.
I've been here three weeks. Have you got any cassettes?
The possessive form • 146
The possessive form of a noun expresses possession and other relations.


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Pat's house the twins' parents the company's future
We can sometimes use the pattern the parents of the twins.
Two nouns together • 147
We often use one noun before another.
department store alarm system boat-train businessman
The first noun tells us what kind of store, system, train or man. Phrases after a noun • 148
There can be a phrase after a noun.
the man in the brown suit
information about the course
that sign there
Nominalization •149


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that sign there
Nominalization •149
Some noun phrases are equivalent to clauses. The start of the race means that the
race starts.
142 Nouns
AN EXPENSIVE TRAP
Worried that ground staff were stealing miniature bottles of whisky from a
Pan-Am aircraft, security guards set a trap. In the summer of 1978 they wired
up a cuckoo clock inside the drinks cabinet so arranged that it would stop
whenever the door was opened. This, they said, would reveal the exact time of the
theft.


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theft.
They omitted, however, to tell the plane's crew, with the result that a stewardess,
Miss Susan Becker, assumed it was a bomb. She alerted the pilot of the Boeing
727 who made an emergency landing at Berlin where eighty passengers left in a
hurry through fire exits.
A Pan-Am spokesman said afterwards that the miniature bottles of whisky on
the plane cost 17 pence each. The cost of the emergency landing was £6,500.
(from Stephen Pile The Book of Heroic Failures)
1 The meaning of nouns


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1 The meaning of nouns
Nouns have many different kinds of meanings. Concrete nouns refer to physical
things: aircraft, clock, door, whisky. Abstract nouns refer to ideas and qualities:
time, result, security. Nouns can also refer to actions and events: theft, landing; and
to roles: pilot, spokesman. A noun can also be a name: Berlin.
2 The form of nouns
a Many nouns have no special form to show that they are nouns. But there are a


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number of endings used to form nouns from other words: movement, intention,
difference, kindness, security, landing. • 285(2)
b Most nouns do not have gender. There are only a few word pairs such as steward/
stewardess. • 285(3e)
c Nouns do not have endings to show that they are subject or object. The only
endings are for the plural (bottles, • 145) and the possessive (the plane's
crew, •146).
17 NOUNS AND NOUN PHRASES PAGE 176 143 Noun phrases
143 Noun phrases
1 A noun phrase can be one word.


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143 Noun phrases
1 A noun phrase can be one word.
Whisky is expensive. (uncountable noun)
Planes take off from here. (plural noun)
They landed at Berlin. (name)
She alerted the pilot. (pronoun)
It can also be more than one word.
Someone was stealing the whisky.
A lot of planes take off from here.
Security guards set a trap.
2 In a noun phrase there can be determiners, quantifiers and modifiers, as well as a
noun.
a Determiners
These come before the noun.
a bomb the result this idea my bag


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a bomb the result this idea my bag
The determiners are the articles (a, the), demonstratives (this, that, these, those)
and Possessives (e.g. my, your).
b Quantifiers
These also come before the noun.
a lot of money two people every photo half the passengers
Quantifiers are a lot of, many, much, a few, every, each, all, most, both, half, some,
any, no etc. • 176
c Modifiers
A noun can be modified by an adjective or by another noun.
Adjective: small bottles the exact time


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Adjective: small bottles the exact time
Noun: glass bottles an emergency landing
A prepositional phrase or adverb phrase can come after the noun and modify it.
the summer of 1978 the people inside • 148
d Overview
This is the basic structure of a noun phrase.
Quantifier Determiner Adjective Noun Noun Other
(+ of) modifier modifier modifiers
a bomb
a hot meal for two
the door
all these bottles here
a lot of empty bottles
a lot of her friends
enough exits
some nice soup dishes


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enough exits
some nice soup dishes
each of the heavy glass doors of the building
PAGE 177 3 Here are some more details about the structure of a noun phrase.
a A quantifier can be more than one word.
a lot of money two hundred and fifty passengers
b We sometimes use both a quantifier and a determiner.
all that whisky both the doors
We can do this with all, both and half.
We can also use a determiner after a quantifier + of.
each of the doors a lot of my time one of these magazines


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For more about quantifiers and determiners together, • 178(f b, 1c).
c Sometimes a quantifier comes after a determiner. We can use many, few or a
number after the, these, those or a possessive.
the many rooms of the house those few people left the three brothers
NOTE
We cannot use a lot of or a few in this pattern.
NOT the a lot of rooms of the house
d A possessive form (e.g. Susan's, the man's) functions as a determiner.
a lot of Susan's friends (Compare: a lot of her friends)


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the man's seat all the passengers' meals
e There can be more than one adjective or noun modifier.
a lovely hot meal china soup dishes
For the order of adjectives, • 202.
f The modifier can be a gerund or participle.
Gerund: some cooking oil a flying lesson • 283(2)
Participle: a ticking clock some stolen bottles of whisky •137
g After a noun we can use a clause as a modifier.
a plan to catch a thief
a clock hidden inside the drinks cabinet
the stewardess who was serving drinks


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the stewardess who was serving drinks
h Next, last and first, second, third etc come after a determiner, not before it.
your next job most of the second week this third anniversary
But they usually go before one, two, three etc.
my next two jobs the first six weeks
NOTE
a Compare these examples.
The first three prizes were £50, £25 and £10.
There were three first prizes, one for each age group.
b For another two jobs and two more jobs, • 180(3b).


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i We can use an adverb before a quantifier or an adjective.
Adverb + quantifier •212(8)
almost all the time quite a lot of money very many bottles
Adverb + adjective •212(1)
a very expensive trap some really nice soup dishes
17 NOUNS AND NOUN PHRASES PAGE 178 4 A noun phrase can be a subject, an object, a complement or an adverbial.
It can also be the object of a preposition.
Subject:
Object:
Complement:
Adverbial:
Prepositional object:
Security guards set a trap.


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Prepositional object:
Security guards set a trap.
The stewardess alerted the pilot.
The cost of a bottle was 17 pence.
That day something unusual happened.
The passengers left in a hurry through fire exits.
144 Countable and uncountable nouns
1 Introduction
a Countable nouns can be singular or plural: book(s), hotel(s), boat(s), day(s), job(s),
mile(s), piece(s), pwblem(s), dream(s). Uncountable nouns are neither singular


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nor plural: water, sugar, salt, money, music, electricity, happiness, excitement.
We use countable nouns for separate, individual things such as books and hotels,
things we can count. We use uncountable nouns for things that do not naturally
divide into separate units, such as water and sugar, things we cannot count.
b Many countable nouns are concrete: table(s), car(s), shoe(s). But some are abstract:
situation(s), idea(s). Many uncountable nouns are abstract: beauty, love,


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psychology. But some are concrete: butter, plastic.
Many nouns can be either countable or uncountable. • (5)
c An uncountable noun takes a singular verb, and we use this/that and it.
This milk is off. I'll pour it down the sink.
2 Words that go with countable/uncountable nouns
Some words go with both countable and uncountable nouns: the boat or the
water. But some words go with only one kind of noun: a boat but NOT a water,
much water but how many boats.
how
Countable Uncountable


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how
Countable Uncountable
Singular Plural
the the boat the boats the water
a/an a boat
some (some boat) some boats some water
Noun on its own boats water
no no boat no boats no water
this/that this boat this water
these/those these boats
Possessives our boat our boats our water
Numbers one boat two boats
a lot of a lot of boats a lot of water
many/few many boats
much/little much water
all all the boat all (the) boats all (the) water
each/every every boat


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each/every every boat
PAGE 179 144 Countable and uncountable nouns 17 NOUNS AND NOUN PHRASES PAGE 180
NOTE
a For some with a singular noun, e.g. some boat, • 179(5).
b We use number of with a plural noun and amount of with an uncountable noun.
a large number of boats a large amount of water
3 The of-pattern expressing quantity
a Look at these phrases.
a glass of water two pounds of flour a piece of wood
NOT a glass water
The pattern is countable noun + of+ uncountable noun.


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b Here are some more examples of this pattern.
Containers: a cup of coffee, a glass of milk, a bottle of wine,
a box of rubbish, a packet of sugar, a tin of pears,
ajar of jam, a tube of toothpaste, a sack of flour
Measurements: three metres of curtain material, a kilo of flour,
twenty litres of petrol, a pint of lager,
two spoonfuls of sugar
'Piece': a piece of cheese/chocolate/plastic/cotton
a slice/piece of bread/cake/meat
a sheet/piece of paper, a bar of soap/chocolate


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a sheet/piece of paper, a bar of soap/chocolate
a stick/piece of chalk, a loaf of bread
a drop of water/ink/oil etc, a grain of sand/rice
a lump of coal/sugar etc
NOTE
a In informal English we can use bit(s) of, meaning 'small piece(s) of, e.g. some bits of cheese.
A bit of can also mean 'a small amount of. • 177(2)
b We can say a chocolate bar (= a bar of chocolate) and a sugar lump, but these are
exceptions. For a wine glass, • 147(6).
a piece/slice
of bread
a loaf
(of bread)
a piece


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a piece/slice
of bread
a loaf
(of bread)
a piece
of chocolate
a bar
of chocolate
c We can also use container/measurement + of+ plural noun.
a box of matches a pound of tomatoes
This can be more convenient than saying six tomatoes.
Some expressions go only with plural nouns, not uncountable nouns.
a crowd of people a series of programmes a bunch of flowers
d We can use piece(s) of, bit(s) of and item(s) of with some uncountable nouns. • (4a)
We can also use these expressions.


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We can also use these expressions.
a period/moment of calm a degree of doubt a sum/an amount of money PAGE 181 144 Countable and uncountable nouns
e Kind, sort, type and make go with either a countable or an uncountable noun.
what kind of sugar this make of computer
4 Countable or uncountable noun?
a It is not always obvious from the meaning whether a noun is countable or
uncountable. For example, information, news and furniture are uncountable.


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I've got some information for you. NOT an information
There was no news of the missing hiker NOT There were no news.
They had very little furniture, NOT very few furnitures
But we can use piece(s) of, bit(s) of and item(s) of with many such nouns.
I've got a piece of information for you.
They had very few items of furniture.
b Here are some uncountable nouns which may be countable in other languages.
accommodation
advice
applause
baggage
behaviour
bread
camping
cash
clothing
countryside


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behaviour
bread
camping
cash
clothing
countryside
crockery
cutlery
damage
(• Note a)
education
(• Note b)
NOTE
a Damages means 'money paid in compensation'.
He received damages for his injuries.
b Knowledge and education can be singular when the meaning is less general.
I had a good education. A knowledge of Spanish is essential.
c A help means 'helpful'.
Thanks. You've been a great help.
d Work can be countable: a work of art, the works of Shakespeare. Works can mean 'factory':


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a steel works. • 154(3)
e We cannot use clothes in the singular or with a number. We can say some clothes but
NOT four clothes. We can say four garments or four items of clothing.
English (the language)
equipment
evidence
fruit
fun
furniture
gossip
harm
health
help (• Note c)
homework
housework
housing
jewellery
knowledge
(•Note b)
land
laughter
leisure
lightning
litter
luck
luggage
machinery
money
news
pay (= wages)
permission
pollution
progress
proof
rain
research
rice
rubbish
scenery


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progress
proof
rain
research
rice
rubbish
scenery
shopping
sightseeing
stuff
thunder
toast
traffic
transport
travel
violence
weather
work
(• Note d)
The following nouns are countable. Their meanings are related to the uncountable
nouns above. For example, suitcase is countable, but luggage is uncountable.
bag(s)
camp(s)
clothes (• Note e)
clue(s)
coin(s)
fact(s)
hobby/hobbies
house(s)
jewel(s)
job(s)
journey(s)
laugh(s)
loaf/loaves
machine(s)
rumour(s)
shop(s)
shower(s)
sight(s)
storm(s)


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rumour(s)
shop(s)
shower(s)
sight(s)
storm(s)
suggestion(s)
permit(s) suitcase(s)
thing(s)
vegetable(s)
vehicle(s) 17 NOUNS AND NOUN PHRASES
5 Nouns that can be either countable or uncountable
a Some concrete nouns are countable when they refer to something separate and
individual, but uncountable when they refer to a type of material or substance.
Countable Uncountable
They had a nice carpet in the living-room. We bought ten square metres of carpet.


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The protestors threw stones at the police. The statue is made of stone.
b Animals, vegetables and fruit are uncountable when we cut or divide them.
Countable Uncountable
buy a (whole) chicken put some chicken in the sandwiches
peel some potatoes eat some potato
pick three tomatoes a pizza with tomato
c These nouns can be countable or uncountable with different meanings.
Countable Uncountable
a glass/some glasses of water some glass for the window
my glasses (= spectacles • 155)


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my glasses (= spectacles • 155)
a daily paper (= newspaper) some writing paper
my papers (= documents)
an ice (= ice-cream) ice on the road
an iron (for ironing clothes) iron (a metal)
a tin of beans tin (a metal)
a bedside light (= lamp) the speed of light
a hair/hairs on your collar comb your hair
a girl in a red dress wearing even ing dress
I've been here lots of times. I haven't got much time.
(= occasions)
an interesting experience experience in the job


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an interesting experience experience in the job
(= an event) (= length of time doing it)
a small business (= company) do business (- buying and selling)
a property (= building) some property (= what someone owns)
The USA is a democracy. the idea of democracy
d The countable noun often refers to a specific example, and the uncountable noun
often refers to an action or idea in general.
Countable Uncountable
a drawing/painting (= a picture) good at drawing/painting


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I heard a noise. constant traffic noise
an interesting conversation the art of conversation
a short war the horrors of war
Tennis is a sport. There's always sport on television.
He led a good life. Life isn't fair. PAGE 183 145 The plural of nouns
e Nouns which describe feelings are usually uncountable, e.g. fear, hope. But some
can be countable, especially for feelings about something specific.
a fear of dogs hopes for the future
doubts about the wisdom of the decision


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doubts about the wisdom of the decision
an intense dislike of quiz shows
Pity, shame, wonder, relief, pleasure and delight are singular as complement.
It seemed a pity to break up the party.
Thanks very much. ~ It's a pleasure.
f When ordering food or drink or talking about portions, we can use countable
nouns.
I'll have a lager. (= a glass of lager)
Three coffees, please. (= three cups of coffee)
Two sugars. (= two spoonfuls of sugar)


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Two sugars. (= two spoonfuls of sugar)
Some nouns can be countable with the meaning 'kind(s) of...'
These lagers are all the same. (= kinds of lager)
There are lots of different grasses. (= kinds of grass)
'You can get a meal here.'
145 The plural of nouns
'You can buy different kinds of food here.'
1 Form
a A countable noun (door, plane, stewardess) has both a singular and a plural form.
To form the plural we add s (doors, planes) or es (stewardesses).
NOTE


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NOTE
a There are some spelling rules for noun plurals.
Adding es after a sibilant sound: dish dishes • 290(1)
Y changing to ie: baby babies • 294
b For pronunciation of the s/es ending, • 290(3).
b Some nouns have an irregular plural, e.g. man men. • 295
c To form the plural of a compound noun or of two nouns together, we add s/es to
the end.
weekends bedrooms motor-bikes glass dishes
We also add s/es to the end of a noun formed from a verb + adverb.
breakdowns walk-outs check-ups


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breakdowns walk-outs check-ups
When a prepositional phrase comes after the noun, we add s/es to the noun.
Doctors of Philosophy mothers-in-law
And when an adverb follows a noun in er, we add s/es to the noun.
passers-by runners-up 17 NOUNS AND NOUN PHRASES
In expressions with man/woman + noun, both parts change to the plural.
women jockeys (= jockeys who are women)
d After a year or an abbreviation, the plural ending can be apostrophe + s.
the 1950s/the 1950's most MPs/most MP's
2 Use


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the 1950s/the 1950's most MPs/most MP's
2 Use
a We use the singular to talk about one thing.
The door was closed. We waited for an hour.
There was only one passenger. I've lost my job.
b We use the plural for more than one.
The doors were all closed. We waited for one and a quarter hours.
There were hundreds of passengers. I've got one or two jobs to do.
NOTE Some nouns are always plural, e.g. clothes, goods. • 154(1)
c For a negative or unknown quantity, we normally use the plural.


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There were no passengers on the bus.
Have you read any good books lately?
NOTE
We can use the singular after no meaning 'not a single one'.
No passenger(s) came to the driver's help when he was attacked.
146 The possessive form
1 Form
To form the possessive we add an apostrophe + s to a singular noun; we add an
apostrophe to a plural noun ending in s; and we add an apostrophe + s to a plural
not ending in s.
Singular + 's my friend's name
s-plural + ' my friends' names


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s-plural + ' my friends' names
Other plurals + 's the children's names
For pronunciation, • 290(4).
a After a singular noun ending in s, we normally add 's: the boss's office, Chris's address. But
after a surname ending in s, we can add just an apostrophe: Perkins' room/Perkins's room,
Yeats' poetry/Yeats's poetry. We can pronounce Perkins' or
b If there is a short phrase after the noun, then the possessive ending comes after the phrase.


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the people next door's cat/the cat belonging to the people next door
c We can leave out the noun after the possessive if the meaning is clear without it.
That umbrella is my friend's.
d Pronouns ending in one/body and the pronouns one, each other and one another can be
possessive.
I found someone's coat here. They visit each other's rooms.
e We can add an apostrophe + s to a phrase with and.
I've just been to Peter and Zoe's flat.
This is much more usual than Peter's and Zoe's flat.


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f We can sometimes use two possessive forms together.
Anita is my cousin - my mother's brother's daughter. PAGE 185 146 The possessive form
2 Use
We use the possessive form to express a relation, often the fact that someone has
something or that something belongs to someone.
Julia's coat Emma's idea my brother's friend the workers' jobs
The possessive usually has a definite meaning. Julia's coat means ' the coat that
belongs to Julia'. But we do not say the with a singular name.


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NOT the Julia's coat
For a coat of Julia's, • 174(5).
3 Possessive form or of?
a There is a pattern with of which has the same meaning as the possessive.
my friend's name/the name of my friend
Sometimes we can use either form. But often only one form is possible.
your father's car NOT the car of your father
the beginning of the term NOT the term's beginning
In general we are more likely to use the possessive form with people rather than


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things and to talk about possession rather than about other relations.
b We normally use the possessive with people and animals.
my friend's sister the dog's bone the Atkinsons' garden
But we use the of-pattern with people when there is a long phrase or a clause.
It's the house of a wealthy businessman from Saudi Arabia.
In the hall hung the coats of all the people attending the reception.
Sometimes both patterns are possible.
the Duchess of Glastonbury's jewellery


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the Duchess of Glastonbury's jewellery
the jewellery of the Duchess of Glastonbury
NOTE
The of-pattern is sometimes possible for relations between people.
the young man's mother/the mother of the young man
c We normally use the of-pattern with things.
the start of the match the bottom of the bottle
the day of the carnival the end of the film
d We can use both patterns with nouns that do not refer directly to people but


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suggest human activity or organization, for example nouns referring to places,
companies or newspapers.
Scotland's rivers the rivers of Scotland
the company's head office the head office of the company
the magazine's political views the political views of the magazine
4 Some other uses of the possessive
a There's a children's playground here.
You can use the customers' car park.
The possessive form can express purpose. A children's playground is a playground


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for children. Other examples: a girls' school, the men's toilet, a boy's jacket. 17 NOUNS AND NOUN PHRASES PAGE 186
b We found a bird's nest.
It was a man's voice that I heard.
Here man's modifies voice, like an adjective. It tells us what kind of voice. Compare
a male voice.
c The girl's reply surprised us.
Roger's actions were later criticized.
This pattern is related to The girl replied. For more examples, • 149(1).
NOTE The of-pattern is sometimes possible: the actions of Roger.


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d The hostages' release came unexpectedly.
Susan's promotion is well deserved.
This pattern is related to They released the hostages.
NOTE
The of-pattern is possible here: the release of the hostages. And we always use the of-pattern
with things rather than people.
the release of the information. NOT the information's release
e That man's stupidity is unbelievable.
The player's fitness is in question.
This pattern is related to That man is stupid. We use it mainly with humans.


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NOTE The of-pattern is also possible: the stupidity of that man.
5 The pattern yesterday's newspaper
The possessive can express time when.
Have you seen yesterday's newspaper?
Next month's figures are expected to show an improvement.
It can also express length of time.
We've booked a three weeks' holiday.
There's going to be about an hour's delay.
NOTE
a Sunday's newspaper is a newspaper on one specific Sunday, e.g. last Sunday. A Sunday


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newspaper is a type of newspaper, one that appears on Sundays.
b We can also use the following patterns to express length of time.
a holiday of three weeks a delay of one hour
a three-week holiday a one-hour delay
6 At Alec's, to the butcher's etc
We can use the possessive without a following noun when we talk about
someone's home or shop.
We're all meeting at Dave's (house/flat).
There's a policeman outside the McPhersons' (house/flat).
Is there a baker's (shop) near here?


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Is there a baker's (shop) near here?
I was sitting in the waiting-room at the dentist's.
We can also use company names.
I'm just going to Tesco's to get some bread.
We ate at Maxime's (Restaurant).
There's a Barclay's (Bank) on the university campus.
NOTE Many companies leave out the apostrophe from their name: Barclays (Bank). PAGE 187 147 Two nouns together
147 Two nouns together
1 We often use one noun before another.
a tennis club money problems a microwave oven


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a tennis club money problems a microwave oven
The first noun modifies the second, tells us something about it, what kind it is or
what it is for.
a tennis club = a club for playing tennis
vitamin pills = pills containing vitamins
a train journey = a journey by train
a phone bill = a bill for using the phone
NOTE
When two nouns are regularly used together, they often form a compound noun; • 283. But
it is often difficult to tell the difference between two separate nouns and one compound


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noun, and the difference is not important for the learner of English.
2 Sometimes there is a hyphen (e.g. waste-bin), and sometimes the two nouns are
written as one (e.g. armchair). There are no exact rules about whether we join the
words or not. • 56(5c)
3 The stress is more often on the first noun.
'tennis club ma'chine-gun 'car park 'fire alarm
But sometimes the main stress comes on the second noun.
cardboard 'box microwave 'oven town 'hall


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cardboard 'box microwave 'oven town 'hall
There are no exact rules about stress, but for more details, • (5).
4 The first noun is not normally plural.
The Sock Shop a picture gallery an eye test a book case
NOTE
Some exceptions are a sports shop, careers information, customs regulations, a clothes rack,
a goods train, systems management, an arms dealer. For American English, • 304(2).
5 Here are some examples of the different kinds of noun + noun pattern.


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a a coffee table (= a table for coffee) a car park security cameras
a cricket ball an oil can (= a can for holding oil) • (6)
NOTE
a The stress is on the first noun: a 'coffee table.
b We can use a gerund, e.g. a sewing-machine (= a machine for sewing). • 283(2)
b a war film (= a film about war) a crime story pay talks
a gardening book a computer magazine
NOTE The stress is on the first noun: a 'war film.
c a chess player (= someone who plays chess) a lorry driver music lovers


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a concrete mixer (= a machine that mixes concrete) a potato peeler
a food blender a sweet shop (= a shop that sells sweets) a biscuit factory
steel production (= the production of steel) life insurance car theft
NOTE
The stress is usually on the first noun: a 'chess player. Compare these two phrases.
Noun + noun: an 'English teacher (= someone who teaches English)
Adjective + noun: an English 'teacher (= a teacher who is English) 17 NOUNS AND NOUN PHRASES


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d a summer holiday (= a holiday in summer) the morning rush
a future date breakfast television
a country cottage (= a cottage in the country) a motorway bridge
Swindon station a hospital doctor a world recession
NOTE
In these examples we usually stress the second noun: a summer 'holiday. But there are many
exceptions, e.g. 'evening classes, a 'Glasgow woman.
e a plastic bag (= a bag made of plastic) a paper cup
a brick wall a glass vase a tin can


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a brick wall a glass vase a tin can
NOTE The main stress is on the second noun: a plastic 'bag.
the oven door (= the door of the oven)
factory chimneys the river bank
the town centre
NOTE
a The main stress is usually on the second noun: the town 'centre.
b With top, bottom, side, back and end we normally use the of-pattern.
the bottom of the valley the end of the motorway NOT the motorway end
But we can say roadside, hillside, hilltop and cliff top.


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They stood by the roadside/ the side of the road.
6 A milk bottle is a bottle for holding milk. Milk refers to the purpose of the bottle. A
bottle of milk is a bottle full of milk. Milk refers to the contents of the bottle.
a milk bottle
Purpose:
Contents:
a bottle of milk
a wine glass
a glass of wine
a jam jar
a jar of jam
a bookshelf
a shelf of books
7 There are more complex patterns with nouns.
a We can use more than two nouns.
Eastbourne town centre a plastic shopping-bag


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Eastbourne town centre a plastic shopping-bag
a life insurance policy security video cameras
Somerset County Cricket Club summer activity holiday courses
We can build up phrases like this.
an air accident (= an accident in the air)
an investigation team (= a team for investigating something)
an air accident investigation team
(= a team for investigating accidents in the air)
PAGE 188 148 Phrases after a noun
b We can use adjectives in these complex noun patterns.


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a comprehensive road atlas a handy plastic shopping-bag
a 'Sunuser' solar heating system British Channel Island Ferries
NOTE
We can also sometimes use a phrase with a preposition.
state-of-the-art technology a sensational end-of-season sale
148 Phrases after a noun
1 We can use a clause or phrase after a noun to modify it.
Clause: the fact that I got there first • 262 (7)
some of those people who called • 272
a lot of time to spare • 124
Phrase: all these boxes here
every day of the week


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every day of the week
a hot meal for two
2 The phrase after the noun can be a prepositional phrase, an adverb phrase, an
adjective phrase or a noun phrase.
Prepositional phrase: When will I meet the girl of my dreams?
Adverb phrase: We don't talk to the people upstairs.
Adjective phrase: The police found parcels full of cocaine.
Noun phrase: The weather that day was awful.
The phrase modifies the noun, tells us more about it.
The prepositional phrase is the most common.


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The prepositional phrase is the most common.
The period just after lunch is always quiet.
I'd love an apartment on Fifth Avenue.
A man with very fair hair was waiting in reception.
The idea of space travel has always fascinated me.
What are the prospects for a peaceful solution?
For noun + preposition, e.g. prospects for, • 237.
NOTE
We can use a pattern with of with the names of places or months. It is rather formal.
Welcome to the city of Coventry.


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Welcome to the city of Coventry.
Here is the long-range weather forecast for the month of June.
3 We can sometimes use two or more phrases together after a noun. Here are some
examples from British newspapers.
Passengers on some services from King's Cross, Euston and Paddington will
need a boarding pass.
Violence erupted at the mass funeral of African National Congress victims of last
week's massacre at Ciskei.
Chris Eubank recorded his fourth successful defence of the WBO super-


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middleweight championship at Glasgow on Saturday with a unanimous
points win over America's Tony Thornton.
We can also use a mixture of phrases and clauses.
The baffling case of a teenage girl who vanished exactly twenty years ago has
been re-opened by police.
PAGE 189 17 NOUNS AND NOUN PHRASES PAGE 190
149 Nominalization
1 Some noun phrases are equivalent to clauses.
Clause Noun phrase
The residents protested. the residents' protests


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The residents protested. the residents' protests
Someone published the document. the publication of the document
The landscape is beautiful. the beauty of the landscape
Expressing an idea in a noun phrase rather than a clause is called 'nominalization'.
Here are two examples in sentences.
The residents' protests were ignored.
The government opposed the publication of the document.
In written English, this is often preferred to The residents protested, but they were


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ignored. For an example text, • 53(2).
NOTE
For the subject of the clause we use either the possessive form or the of-pattern.
Clause Noun phrase
The visitor departed. the visitor's departure/the departure of the visitor
The scheme succeeded. the scheme's success/the success of the scheme
The telephone rang. the ringing of the telephone
2 An adverb in a clause is equivalent to an adjective in a noun phrase.
Adverb in clause Adjective in noun phrase


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Adverb in clause Adjective in noun phrase
The residents protested angrily. The residents' angry protests were ignored.
The landscape is amazingly Discover the amazing beauty of the landscape.
beautiful.
3 Look at these examples.
Verb + object Noun + preposition + object
They published the document. the publication of the document
Someone attacked the President. an attack on the President
They've changed the law. a change in the law
He answered the question. his answer to the question


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The most common preposition here is of. For noun + preposition, • 237. PAGE 191
18Agreement
150 Summary
Singular and plural verbs • 151
Subject-verb agreement means choosing the correct singular or plural verb after
the subject.
The shop opens at nine. The shops open at nine.
Points to note about number and agreement
Singular and plural subjects • 152
Phil and Janice have invited us round.
Two hours is a long time to wait.
One of, a number of, every, there etc • 153


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One of, a number of, every, there etc • 153
A number of problems have arisen.
Every cloud has a silver lining.
Nouns with a plural form • 154
Physics is my favourite subject.
Pair nouns • 155
These shorts are nice.
Group nouns • 156
The company is/are building a new factory.
Number in the subject and object • 157
We all wrote down our names.
NOTE
For The dead are not forgotten, • 204.
For The French have a word for it, • 288(1d).
151 Singular and plural verbs


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151 Singular and plural verbs
1 In the third person there is sometimes agreement between the subject and the first
(or only) word of a finite verb phrase.
The house is empty. The houses are empty.
Here we use is with a singular subject and are with a plural.
An uncountable noun takes a singular verb.
The grass is getting long. 18 AGREEMENT PAGE 192
With a present-tense verb there is agreement.
The window is broken. The windows are broken.
The office has a phone. The offices have phones.


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The office has a phone. The offices have phones.
The garden looks nice. The gardens look nice.
152 Singular and plural subjects
It is usually easy to decide if a subject is singular or plural, but there are some
points to note.
1 TWO or more phrases linked by and take a plural verb.
Jamie and Emma go sailing at weekends.
Both the kitchen and the dining-room face due west.
Wheat and maize are exported.
But when the two together express something that we see as a single thing, then


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we use a singular verb.
Bread and butter was all we had.
2 When two phrases are linked by or, the verb usually agrees with the nearest.
Either Thursday or Friday is OK.
Either my sister or the neighbours are looking after the dog.
3 A phrase of measurement takes a singular verb.
Ten miles is too far to walk. Thirty pounds seems a reasonable price.
Here we are talking about the amount as a whole - a distance of ten miles, a sum of
thirty pounds, not the individual miles or pounds.


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Titles and names also take a singular verb when they refer to one thing.
'Star Wars' was a very successful film.
The Rose and Crown is that old pub by the river.
4 A phrase with as well as or with does not make the subject plural.
George, together with some of his friends, is buying a race-horse.
A phrase with and in brackets does not normally make the subject plural.
The kitchen (and of course the dining-room) faces due west.


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There is agreement with be, • 84(2), have, • 85(2), and a present-simple verb
(look). A third-person singular subject takes a verb form in s.
NOTE
a A modal verb always has the same form.
The window(s) might be broken.
b For the subjunctive, • 242.
We recommend that the pupil receive a special award.
3 With a past-tense verb there is agreement only with be.
The window was broken. The windows were broken.
With other verbs, there is only one past form.


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With other verbs, there is only one past form.
The office(s) had lots of phones. The garden(s) looked nice.
NOTE
For the subjunctive were, • 242(3).
If the story were true, what would it matter? After not only... but also, the verb agrees with the nearest phrase.
Not only George but also his friends are buying the horse.
NOTE
A phrase in apposition does not make the subject plural.
George, my neighbour, often goes to the races.


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George, my neighbour, often goes to the races.
5 If a phrase comes after the noun, the verb agrees with the first noun.
The house between the two bungalows is empty.
6 A phrase or clause as subject takes a singular verb.
Through the trees is the quickest way.
Opening my presents was exciting.
7 Even if the subject comes after the verb, the verb agrees with the subject.
A great attraction are the antique shops in the old part of the town.


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Here a great attraction is the complement. It describes the subject, the antique
shops.
153 One of, a number of, every, there etcPAGE 193
153 One of, a number of, every, there etc
1 After a subject with one of, we use a singular verb.
One of these letters is for you.
2 When a plural noun follows number of, majority of or a lot of, we normally use a
plural verb.
A large number of letters were received.
The majority of people have complained.
A lot of people have complained.


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A lot of people have complained.
Here a number of etc expresses a quantity.
NOTE
a When number means 'figure', it agrees with the verb.
The number of letters we receive is increasing.
b Amount agrees with the verb.
A large amount of money was collected. Large amounts of money were collected.
c After a fraction, the verb agrees with the following noun, e.g. potato, plants.
Three quarters (of a potato) is water.
Almost half (the plants) were killed.


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Almost half (the plants) were killed.
3 We use a singular verb after a subject with every and each and compounds with
every, some, any and no.
Every pupil has to take a test.
Each day was the same as the one before.
Everyone has to take a test.
Someone was waiting at the door.
Nothing ever happens in this place.
But all and some with a plural noun take a plural verb.
All the pupils have to take a test.
Some people were waiting at the door.
NOTE


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Some people were waiting at the door.
NOTE
When each follows a plural subject, the verb is plural.
The pupils each have to take a test. 18 AGREEMENT PAGE 194
We use a singular verb after who or what.
Who knows the answer? ~ We all do.
What's happened? ~ Several things.
After what/which + noun, the verb agrees with the noun.
What/Which day is convenient? What/Which days are convenient?
NOTE
A verb after which is singular or plural depending on how many we are talking about.


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Which (of these sweaters) goes best with my trousers?~ This one, I think.
Which (of these shoes) go best with my trousers? ~ These, I think.
After none of/neither of/either of/any of+ plural noun phrase, we can use either a
singular or plural verb.
None (of the pupils) has/have failed the test.
I don't know if either (of these batteries) is/are any good.
The plural verb is more informal.
NOTE
After no, we can use either the singular or the plural.


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No pupil has failed/No pupils have failed the test.
After there, the verb agrees with its complement.
There was an accident. There were some accidents.
NOTE
In informal English we sometimes use there's before a plural.
There's some friends of yours outside.
154 Nouns with a plural form
1 Plural noun - plural verb
a Some nouns are always plural.
The goods were found to be defective. NOT a good
My belongings have been destroyed in a fire. NOT my belonging


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Nouns always plural are belongings, clothes, congratulations, earnings, goods,
odds (= probability), outskirts, particulars (= details), premises (= building),
remains, riches, surroundings, thanks, troops (= soldiers), tropics.
NOTE For pair nouns, e.g. glasses, trousers, • 155.
b Compare these nouns.
Plural only
hurt my arm(s) and leg(s) arms (= weapons)
an old custom go through customs
manner (= way) manners (= polite behaviour)
the content of the message the contents of the box


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a saving of £5 all my savings
do some damage to the car pay damages
feel pain(s) in my back take pains (= care) PAGE 195 155 Pair nouns
2 Plural form - singular verb
The news isn't very good, I'm afraid.
Gymnastics looks difficult, and it is.
Nouns like this are news; some words for subjects of study: mathematics, statistics,
physics, politics, economics; some sports: athletics, gymnastics, bowls; some games:
billiards, darts, dominoes, draughts; and some illnesses: measles, mumps, shingles.


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NOTE
Some of these nouns can have normal singular and plural forms when they mean physical
things.
Tom laid a domino on the table.
These statistics are rather complicated. (= these figures)
Politics takes a plural verb when it means someone's views.
His politics are very left-wing. (= his political opinions)
3 Nouns with the same singular and plural form
A chemical works causes a lot of pollution.
Chemical works cause a lot of pollution.


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Chemical works cause a lot of pollution.
Works can mean 'a factory' or 'factories'. When it is plural we use a plural verb.
Nouns like this are barracks, crossroads, headquarters, means, series, species, works.
NOTE
Works, headquarters and barracks can sometimes be plural when they refer to one building or
one group of buildings.
These chemical works here cause a lot of pollution.
155 Pair nouns
1 We use a pair noun for something made of two identical parts.
glasses/spectacles


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glasses/spectacles
2 A pair noun is plural in form and takes a plural verb.
These trousers need cleaning. Your new glasses are very nice.
I'm looking for some scissors. Those tights are cheap.
We cannot use a or numbers, NOT a trouser and NOT two trousers
NOTE
Some pair nouns can be singular before another noun: a trouser leg, a pyjama jacket.
But: my glasses case.
3 We can use pair(s) of.
This pair of trousers needs cleaning.
How have three pairs of scissors managed to disappear?


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trousers scissors 18 AGREEMENT PAGE 196
Some pair nouns are: binoculars, glasses, jeans, pants, pincers, pliers, pyjamas,
scales (for weighing), scissors, shorts, spectacles, tights, trousers, tweezers.
NOTE
a Three of these nouns can be singular with a different meaning: a glass of water,
a spectacle (= a wonderful sight), a scale of five kilometres to the centimetre.
b Most words for clothes above the waist are not pair nouns, e.g. shirt, pullover, suit, coat.


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c We can also use pair(s) of with socks, shoes, boots, trainers etc. These nouns can be
singular: a shoe.
156 Group nouns
1 Group nouns (sometimes called 'collective nouns') refer to a group of people,
e.g. family, team, crowd. After a singular group noun, the verb can often be either
singular or plural.
The crowd was/were in a cheerful mood.
There is little difference in meaning. The choice depends on whether we see the
crowd as a whole or as a number of individuals.
NOTE


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NOTE
a In the USA a group noun usually takes a singular verb. • 304(1)
b A group noun can be plural.
The two teams know each other well.
c A phrase with of can follow the noun, e.g. a crowd of people, a team of no-hopers.
2 With a singular verb we use it, its and which/that. With a plural verb we use they,
their and who/that.
The government wants to improve its image.
The government want to improve their image.
The crowd which has gathered here is in a cheerful mood.


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The crowd who have gathered here are in a cheerful mood.
3 We use the singular to talk about the whole group. For example, we might refer to
the group's size or make-up, or how it compares with others.
The class consists of twelve girls and fourteen boys.
The union is the biggest in the country.
The plural is more likely when we talk about people's thoughts or feelings.
The class don't/doesn't understand what the teacher is saying.
The union are/is delighted with their/its pay rise.


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4 Some group nouns are:
army company group population
association council jury press
audience crew majority public
board crowd management school
choir enemy military society (= club)
class family minority staff
club firm navy team
college gang orchestra union
committee government (political) party university
community
NOTE Military, press and public do not have a plural form. NOT the publics 5 The names of institutions, companies and teams are also group nouns,


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e.g. Parliament, the United Nations, The Post Office, the BBC, Selfridge's, Rank
Xerox, Manchester United, England (= the England team).
Safeway sells/sell organic vegetables.
Brazil is/are expected to win.
NOTE
The United States usually takes a singular verb.
The United States has reacted angrily.
6 These nouns have a plural meaning and take a plural verb: police, people,
livestock (= farm animals), cattle (= cows), poultry (= hens).
The police are questioning a man.


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The police are questioning a man.
Some cattle have got out into the road.
NOTE
a For details about people, • 296(1) Note b.
b When poultry means meat, it is uncountable.
Poultry has gone up in price.
157 Number in the subject and object
There is sometimes a problem about number with an object. Compare these
sentences.
The schools have a careers adviser.
(A number of schools share the same adviser.)
The schools have careers advisers.
(Each school has one or more advisers.)


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(Each school has one or more advisers.)
When a number of people each have one thing, then the object is usually plural.
We put on our coats. They all nodded their heads in agreement.
But we use the singular after a subject with each or every.
Each town has its own mayor.
157 Number in the subject and objectPAGE 197 19The articles: a/an and the
158 Summary
ACCIDENTS CAN HAPPEN
The Royal Society for the Prevention of Accidents held an exhibition at Harrogate,


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in the north of England. Some shelves were put up to display the exhibits. During
the exhibition, the shelves fell down, injuring a visitor.
We use a/an only with a singular noun, but we can use the with any noun. We also
use some as a plural equivalent of a/an.
Some shelves were put up.
We can also sometimes use a noun on its own without an article.
Accidents can happen.
The form of the articles • 159
We use a before a consonant sound and an before a vowel sound.
a visitor an exhibition


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a visitor an exhibition
The basic use of the articles • 160
A/an is the indefinite article, and the is the definite article. We use the when it is
clear which one we mean. This can happen in three different ways. Firstly, by
repetition: we say an exhibition when we first mention it, but the exhibition when
it is mentioned again, when it means 'the exhibition just mentioned'. Secondly,
when there is only one: the captain. And thirdly, because a phrase or clause after


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the noun makes clear which one is meant: the woman sitting behind us.
A/an to describe and classify •161
We use a/an to describe and classify.
This is a nice place. 'The Economist' is a magazine.
The article in generalizations •162
Articles can also have a general meaning.
The bicycle is a cheap means of transport.
There is lots to interest a visitor.
A plural or uncountable noun on its own can also have a general meaning.
Accidents can happen.
A/an or one? • 163


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Accidents can happen.
A/an or one? • 163
We can use either a/an or one with a singular noun. One puts more emphasis on
the number. A/an, some and a noun on its own • 164
We use a/an only with a singular noun. With plural or uncountable nouns we use
some or the noun on its own.
Singular: A shelf was put up.
Plural: (Some) shelves were put up.
Uncountable: (Some) furniture was brought in.
Sugar or the sugar? • 165
With an uncountable or plural noun we often have a choice between, for example,


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music (general) and the music (specific).
Music usually helps me relax. The music was far too loud.
OVERVIEW: a/an, some and the • 166
A singular noun on its own • 167
We use a singular noun on its own only in some special patterns.
Articles with school, prison etc • 168
I hope to go to university.
Articles in phrases of time • 169
You should get the letter on Thursday.
Names of people • 170
Names of people normally have no article.
Place names and the • 171


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Place names and the • 171
Some place names have the. We say Kennedy Airport but the Classic Cinema.
Ten pounds an hour etc • 172
There is a special use of a/an in phrases of price, speed etc.
A nursing home costs £400 a week.
159 The form of the articles
a + consonant sound an + vowel sound
159 The form of the articlesPAGE 199
1 Before a consonant sound the articles are a and the . Before a vowel sound
they are an and the
a shelf
a visitor
a big exhibition an interesting display
an exhibition


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an exhibition
an accident
the the
the accidentthe shelf 19 THE ARTICLES: A/AN AND THE
It is the pronunciation of the next word which matters, not the spelling. Note
especially words beginning with o, u or h, or abbreviations.
160 The basic use of the articles
1 HOVERCRAFT STOWAWAY
A hovercraft flying at 40 mph was halted in rough seas when a stowaway was
discovered - on the outside. He was seen hiding behind a liferaft to avoid paying


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the £5 fare from Ryde, Isle of Wight to Southsea. The captain was tipped off by
radio. He stopped the craft and a crewman brought the stowaway inside.
A Hovertravel spokesman said: 'It was a very dangerous thing to do. The ride
can be bumpy and it would be easy to fall off.'
(from The Mail on Sunday)
When the report first mentions a thing, the noun has a/an, e.g. a hovercraft and a
stowaway in the first sentence. When the same thing is mentioned again, the
writer uses the.


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writer uses the.
He stopped the craft and a crewman brought the stowaway inside.
The means that it should be clear to the reader which one, the one we are talking
about.
The difference between a/an and the is like the difference between someone!
something and a personal pronoun.
Police are questioning a man/someone about the incident. The man/He was
arrested when he arrived at Southsea.
A man/someone is indefinite; the man/he is definite.
NOTE


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NOTE
a For a/an describing something, e.g. It was a very dangerous thing to do,• 161.
b We sometimes see a special use of the at the beginning of a story. This is the first sentence
of a short story by Ruth Rendell.
A murderer had lived in the house, the estate agent told Norman.
This puts the reader in the middle of the action, as if we already know what house.
2 The context is important in the choice of a/an or the. Take this example from
Hovercraft Stowaway in (1).


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Hovercraft Stowaway in (1).
The captain was tipped off by radio.
a one-day event
a union/uniform/university
a European country
a holiday
a U-turn an MI5 agent
an hour
an error
an umbrella
an only child
NOTE
a With some words we can either pronounce h or not, e.g. a hotel or an hotel
Also: a/an historic moment, a/an horrific accident. Leaving out is a little formal
and old-fashioned,
b In slow or emphatic speech we can use a an and the
And now, ladies and gentlemen, a special item in our show.


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When the is stressed, it can mean 'the only', 'the most important'.
Aintree is the place to be on Grand National Day.
Ronald Reagan, • 170(2) Note a.For the We use the here even though this is the first mention of the captain. Because we
are talking about a hovercraft, it is clear that the captain means the captain of the
hovercraft. We use the for something unique in the context - there is only one
captain.
A car stopped and the driver got out.
You'll see a shop with paintings in the window.


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You'll see a shop with paintings in the window.
We know which window - the window of the shop just mentioned.
Now look at these examples.
A hovercraft crossing the English Channel was halted in rough seas.
The Prime Minister is to make a statement.
The sun was shining. We were at home in the garden.
I'm just going to the post office.
Could I speak to the manager? (spoken in a restaurant).
I can't find the volume control. (spoken while looking at a stereo)


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There is only one English Channel, one Prime Minister of a country, one sun in the
sky, one garden of our house and one post office in our neighbourhood. So in each
example it is clear which we mean.
We often use the when a phrase or clause comes after the noun and defines which
one is meant.
Ours is the house on the corner.
I'd like to get hold of the idiot who left this broken glass here.
But if the phrase or clause does not give enough information to show which one,
we use a/an.


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we use a/an.
He lives in a house overlooking the park.
We cannot use the if there are other houses overlooking the park.
We often use the when an of-phrase follows the noun.
We came to the edge of a lake.
The roof of a house was blown off in the storm.
Steve heard the sound of an aircraft overhead.
NOTE
But we can use a/an before a phrase of quantity with of.
Would you like a piece of toast?
We normally use the in noun phrases with superlative adjectives and with only,


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next, last, same, right and wrong.
The Sears Tower is the tallest building in the world.
You're the only friend I've got.
I think you went the wrong way at the lights.
NOTE
a An only child is a child without brothers or sisters.
b For next and last in phrases of time, e.g. next week, • 169(8).
We use the in a rather general sense with some institutions, means of transport
and communication, and with some jobs.
This decade has seen a revival in the cinema.


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This decade has seen a revival in the cinema.
I go to work on the train. Your cheque is in the post.
Kate has to go to the dentist tomorrow.
Here the cinema does not mean a specific cinema but the cinema as an institution.
The train means the train as a means of transport.
160 The basic use of the articlesPAGE 201 19 THE ARTICLES: A/AN AND THE PAGE 202
Also the countryside, the doctor, the establishment, the media, the (news)paper, the
police, the press, the seaside, the working class(es).
NOTE


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NOTE
Television and radio as institutions do not take an article.
Donna has got a job in television/in radio.
But compare watch television/see it on television and listen to the radio/hear it on the radio.
When we talk about the physical things, we use the articles in the normal way.
There was a television/a radio on the shelf.
Harry turned on the radio/the television.
6 A/an can mean either a specific one or any one.
I'm looking for a pen. It's a blue one. (a specific pen)


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I'm looking for a pen. Have you got one? (any pen)
A hovercraft was halted in rough seas yesterday. (a specific hovercraft)
The quickest way is to take a hovercraft. (any one)
7 Here is an overview of the basic uses of the articles.
a/an the
Not mentioned before Mentioned before
Do you want to see a video? Do you want to see the video?
(We don't say which video.) (= the video we are talking about)
Unique in context
Are you enjoying the play?
(spoken in a theatre)


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Are you enjoying the play?
(spoken in a theatre)
Not unique Phrase or clause defines which
We watched a film about wildlife. I watched the film you videoed.
(There are other films about wildlife.) (You videoed one film.)
161 Alan to describe and classify
1 A singular noun phrase which describes something has a/an, even though it is
clear which one is meant.
This is a big house, isn't it? Last Saturday was a lovely day.
You are an idiot, you know. It's a long way to Newcastle.


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2 We also use a/an to classify, to say what something is.
What kind of bird is that? ~ A blackbird, isn't it?
The Sears Tower is a building in Chicago.
This includes a person's job, nationality or belief.
My sister is a doctor. NOT My sister is doctor.
The author of the report is a Scot.
I thought you were a socialist.
Mr Liam O'Donnell, a Catholic, was injured in the incident.
NOTE
We can also use an adjective of nationality (e.g. American, Scottish) as complement.


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The author of the report is an American/is American.
My grandfather was a Scot/was Scottish. NOT He was Scot.
For nationality words, • 288. 162 The article in generalizations
This paragraph contains some generalizations about animals.
ANIMAL NOSES
As with other parts of its equipment, an animal evolves the kind of nose it needs.
The hippo has grown its ears and eyes on the top of its head, and its nostrils on top


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of its nose, for lying in water. Camels and seals can close their noses; they do it in
the same way but for different reasons. The camel closes its nose against the
blowing sand of the desert, and the seal against the water in which it spends most
of its time.
(from F. E. Newing and R. Bowood Animals And How They Live)
For generalizations we can use a plural or an uncountable noun on its own, or a
singular noun with a/an or the.
Camels can close their noses.
A camel can close its nose.


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A camel can close its nose.
The camel can close its nose.
These statements are about all camels, camels in general, not a specific camel or
group of camels. We do not use the camels for a generalization.
1 Plural/uncountable noun on its own
Blackbirds have a lovely song. Airports are horrible places.
People expect good service. Time costs money.
This is the most common way of making a generalization.
2 Alan + singular noun
A blackbird has a lovely song.


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A blackbird has a lovely song.
A computer will only do what it's told to do.
An oar is a thing you row a boat with.
Here a blackbird means any blackbird, any example of a blackbird. We also
normally use a/an when explaining the meaning of a word such as an oar.
3 The + singular noun
The blackbird has a lovely song.
What will the new tax mean for the small businessman?
Nobody knows who invented the wheel.
Can you play the piano?


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Can you play the piano?
Here the blackbird means a typical, normal blackbird, one which stands for
blackbirds in general.
We also use the with some groups of people described in economic terms (the
small businessman, the taxpayer, the customer), with inventions (the wheel, the
word processor) and with musical instruments.
NOTE
Sports and games are uncountable, so we use the noun on its own: play tennis, play chess.
Compare play the piano and play the guitar. For American usage, • 304(3).


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162 The article in generalizationsPAGE 203 19 THE ARTICLES: A/AN AND THE PAGE 204
4 The+ adjective
We can use the before some adjectives of nationality and before some other
adjectives to make generalizations.
The French love eating in restaurants. • 288(3)
What is the World Bank doing to help the poor? • 204
163 Alan or one?
1 Alan and one both refer to one thing, but one puts more emphasis on the number.
The stereo has a tape deck. (You can record on it.)


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The stereo has one tape deck. (You can't use two tapes.)
2 We use one for one of a larger number. It often contrasts with other.
One shop was open, but the others were closed.
One expert says one thing, and another says something different.
We use one in the of-pattern.
One of the shops was open.
3 We use one in adverb phrases with morning, day, time etc.
One morning something very strange happened.
One day my genius will be recognized.


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One day my genius will be recognized.
4 We use a/an in some expressions of quantity, e.g. a few, a little, a lot of, a number
of, • 177. And we can sometimes use a instead of one in a number, e.g. a hundred,
• 191(1) Note b.
164 Alan, some and a noun on its own
1 We use a/an only with a singular noun. Some + plural or uncountable noun is
equivalent to a/an + singular noun.
Singular: There's a rat under the floorboards.
Plural: There are some rats under the floorboards.


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Uncountable: There's some milk in the fridge.
some rats = a number of rats; some milk = an amount of milk
But we can sometimes use a plural or uncountable noun on its own.
There are rats under the floorboards.
There's milk in the fridge.
Leaving out some makes little difference to the meaning, but rats expresses a type
of animal rather than a number of rats.
2 To classify or describe something, • 161, or to make a generalisation, • 162, we


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use a/an+ singular noun or a plural or uncountable noun on its own.
Singular: That's a rat, not a mouse. A rat will eat anything.
Plural: Those are rats, not mice. Rats will eat anything.
Uncountable: Is this milk or cream? Milk is good for you. 166 Overview: a/an, some and the
165 Sugar or the sugar?
1 We use an uncountable or plural noun on its own for a generalization and we use
the when the meaning is more specific.
Sugar is bad for your teeth. Children don't like long walks.


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Pass the sugar, please. Can you look after the children for us ?
Without oil, our industry would come to a halt.
The oil I got on my trousers won't wash out.
Here sugar means all sugar, sugar in general, and the sugar means the sugar on the
table where we are sitting.
We often use abstract nouns on their own: life, happiness, love, progress, justice.
Life just isn't fair.
But a phrase or clause after the noun often defines, for example, what life we are
talking about, so we use the.


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talking about, so we use the.
The life of a Victorian factory worker wasn't easy.
2 Compare these two patterns with an abstract noun.
I'm not an expert on Chinese history.
I'm not an expert on the history of China.
The meaning is the same. Other examples: European architecture/the architecture
of Europe, American literature/the literature of America. Also: town planning/the
planning of towns, Mozart's music/the music of Mozart.


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3 A phrase with of usually takes the, but with other phrases and clauses we can use a
noun without an article.
Life in those days wasn't easy.
Silk from Japan was used to make the wedding dress.
Life in those days is still a general idea; silk from Japan means a type of material
rather than a specific piece of material.
166 Overview: a/an, some and the
Not specific: I need a stamp for this letter.
I need (some) stamps for these letters.
I need (some) paper to write letters.


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I need (some) paper to write letters.
Specific but There's a stamp in the drawer.
indefinite, not There are (some) stamps in the drawer.
mentioned before: There's (some) paper in the drawer.
Specific and definite, The stamp (I showed you) is valuable.
we know which: The stamps (I showed you) are valuable.
The paper (you're using) is too thin.
Describing or This is a nice stamp/a Canadian stamp.
classifying: These are nice stamps/Canadian stamps.
This is nice paper/wrapping paper.


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This is nice paper/wrapping paper.
Generalizations: A stamp often tells a story.
This book is a history of the postage stamp.
This book is a history of postage stamps.
How is paper made ?
PAGE 205 19 THE ARTICLES: A/AN AND THE
67 A singular noun on its own
We cannot normally use a singular noun on its own, but there are some
exceptions.
1 Before some nouns for institutions. • 168
How are you getting on at college?
2 In some phrases of time. • 169
The concert is on Thursday.


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The concert is on Thursday.
3 In some fixed expressions where the noun is repeated or there is a contrast
between the two nouns.
I lie awake night after night.
The whole thing has been a fiasco from start to finish.
4 In a phrase with by expressing means of transport. • 228(5b)
It's quicker by plane.
5 As complement or after as, when the noun expresses a unique role.
Elizabeth was crowned Queen.
As (the) chairman, I have to keep order.
NOTE
We use a/an when the role is not unique.


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NOTE
We use a/an when the role is not unique.
As a member of this club, I have a right to come in.
6 With a noun in apposition, especially in newspaper style.
Housewife Judy Adams is this week's competition winner.
7 In many idiomatic phrases, especially after a preposition or verb.
in fact for example give way
But others can have an article.
in a hurry on the whole take a seat
8 Names of people have no article, • 170, and most place names have no
article, • 171.


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article, • 171.
9 We can sometimes leave out an article to avoid repeating it. • 13(3)
Put the knife and fork on the tray.
10 We can leave out articles in some special styles such as written instructions. • 45
Insert plug in hole in side panel.
168 Articles with school, prison etc
We use some nouns without the when we are talking about the normal purpose of
an institution rather than about a specific building.
School starts at nine o'clock.
The school is in the centre of the village.


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The school is in the centre of the village.
The guilty men were sent to prison.
Vegetables are delivered to the prison twice a week.
Here school means 'school activities', but the school means 'the school building'. 2 There are a number of other nouns which are without the in similar contexts.
I'm usually in bed by eleven.
The bed felt very uncomfortable.
In bed means 'sleeping/resting', but the bed means a specific bed.
3 We use an article if there is a word or phrase modifying the noun.


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The guilty men were sen to a high-security prison.
Mark is doing a course at the new college.
NOTE
When the noun is part of a name, there is usually no article. • 171
The guilty men were sent to Parkhurst Prison.
4 Here are some notes on the most common nouns of this type.
bed in bed, go to bed (to sleep); get out of bed, sit on the bed, make the bed
church in/at church, go to church (to a service)
class do work in class or for homework
court appear in court; But explain to the court


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court appear in court; But explain to the court
home at home; But in the house; go/come home
hospital in hospital (as a patient) (USA: in the hospital); taken to hospital (as
a patient); But at the hospital,
market take animals to market; But at/in the market; put a house on the
market (= offer it for sale)
prison in prison, go to prison (as a prisoner); released from prison; Also in
jail etc
school in/at school, go to school (as a pupil)


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school in/at school, go to school (as a pupil)
sea at sea (= sailing), go to sea (as a sailor); But on the sea, near/by the
sea, at the seaside
town in town, go to town, leave town (one's home town or a town visited
regularly); But in the town centre
university (studying) at university, go to university (to study); But at/to the
university is also possible and is normal in the USA. Also at college etc
work go to work, leave work, at work (= working/at the workplace); But go


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to the office/the factory
NOTE
We do not leave out the before other singular nouns for buildings and places, e.g. the station,
the shop, the cinema, the theatre, the library, the pub, the city, the village.
169 Articles in phrases of time
In a phrase of time we often use a singular noun without an article.
in winter on Monday
But the noun takes a/an or the if there is an adjective before the noun or if there is
a phrase or clause after it.
a very cold winter
the Monday before the holiday


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a very cold winter
the Monday before the holiday
the winter when we had all that snow
PAGE 207 169 Articles in phrases of time 19 THE ARTICLES: A/AN AND THE
1 Years
The party was formed in 1981. in the year 1981
The war lasted from 1812 to 1815.
2 Seasons
If winter comes, can spring be
far behind?
We always go on holiday in
(the) summer.
the winter of 1947
a marvellous summer
3 Months
June is a good month to go away.
The event will be in March.
That was the June we got married.


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That was the June we got married.
4 Special times of the year
I hate Christmas.
Americans eat turkey at
Thanksgiving.
5 Days of the week
Wednesday is my busy day.
Our visitors are coming on
Saturday.
It was a Christmas I'll never forget.
Rosie saw her husband again the Easter
after their divorce.
I posted the letter on the Wednesday
of that week.
This happened on a Saturday in July.
I'll see you at the weekend.
6 Parts of the day and night
They reached camp at sunset.
We'll be home before dark.


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We'll be home before dark.
At midday it was very hot.
at night, by day/night
It was a marvellous sunset.
I can't see in the dark.
in/during the day/the night/the
morning/the afternoon/the evening
NOTE
In phrases of time we normally use these nouns on their own; daybreak, dawn, sunrise;
midday, noon; dusk, twilight, sunset; nightfall, dark; midnight. But we use a/an or the for the
physical aspect, e.g. in the dark.
7 Meals
Breakfast is at eight o'clock.
I had a sandwich for lunch.
NOTE


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I had a sandwich for lunch.
NOTE
We cannot use meal on its own.
The meal was served at half past seven.
The breakfast we had at the hotel
wasn't very nice.
Bruce and Wendy enjoyed a delicious
lunch at Mario's. 170 Names of people
8 Phrases with last and next
These flats were built last year. The flats had been built the previous
year.
We're having a party next They were having a party the following
Saturday. Saturday.
NOTE
We can use the with next day.


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NOTE
We can use the with next day.
(The) next day, the young man called again.
But we use the next week/month/year mostly to talk about the past.
Seen from the present: tomorrow next week next year
Seen from the past: (the) next day the next/following week the next/following year
170 Names of people
A person's name does not normally have the in front of it.
I saw Peter yesterday.
Mrs Parsons just phoned.
We can address or refer to a person as e.g. Peter or Mr Johnson, or we can refer to


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him as Peter Johnson. The use of the first name is informal and friendly.
We use Mr for a man, Mrs for a married woman and Miss
for an unmarried woman. Some people use Ms or ) for a woman,
whether married or not. We cannot normally use these titles without a following
noun. NOT Good morning, mister.
A title is part of a name and has no article.
Doctor Fry Aunt Mary Lord Olivier
NOTE
a Some titles can also be ordinary nouns. Compare I saw Doctor Fry and I saw the doctor.


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b A title + of-phrase takes the, e.g. the Prince of Wales.
c We use the to refer to a family, e.g. the Johnson family/the Johnsons.
2 But sometimes we can use a name with an article.
There's a Laura who works in our office. (= a person called Laura)
A Mrs Wilson called to see you. (= someone called Mrs Wilson)
The Laura I know has dark hair. (= the person called Laura)
The gallery has some Picassos. (=some pictures by Picasso)
NOTE


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NOTE
a Stressed the before the name of a person can mean 'the famous person'.
I know a Joan Collins, but she isn't the Joan Collins.
b We can sometimes use other determiners.
I didn't mean that Peter, I meant the other one.
our Laura (= the Laura in our family) 19 THE ARTICLES: A/AN AND THE PAGE 210
171 Place names and the
1 Most place names are without the: Texas, Calcutta. Some names take the,
especially compound names, but some do not: the Black Sea but Lake Superior.


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Two things affect whether a place name has the or not. They are the kind of place it
is (e.g. a lake or a sea), and the grammatical pattern of the name. We often use the
in these patterns.
of-phrase: the Isle of Wight, the Palace of Congresses
Adjective: the Royal Opera House, the International School
Plural: the West Indies
But we do not use the before a possessive.
Possessive: Cleopatra's Needle
There are exceptions to these patterns, and the use of the is a matter of idiom as


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much as grammatical rule.
NOTE
a Look at these uses of a/an and the before a name which normally has no article.
There's a Plymouth in the USA. (= a place called Plymouth)
The Plymouth of today is very different from the Plymouth I once knew.
Amsterdam is the Venice of the North. (= the place like Venice)
b Even when a name has the (on the Isle of Wight) the article can still be left out in some
contexts such as on signs and labels. On a map the island is marked Isle of Wight.


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2 Here are some details about different kinds of place names.
a Continents, islands, countries, states and counties
Most are without the.
a trip to Europe on Bermuda a holiday in France through Texas
in Hampshire New South Wales
Exceptions are names ending with words like republic or kingdom.
the Dominican Republic the UK
Plural names also have the.
the Netherlands the Bahamas the USA
NOTE
Other exceptions are the Gambia and the Ukraine.
b Regions


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b Regions
When the name of a country or continent (America) is modified by another word
(Central), we do not use the.
Central America to North Wales South-East Asia in New England
Most other regions have the.
the South the Mid-West the Baltic the Midlands the Riviera
c Mountains and hills
Most are without the.
climbing (Mount) Kilimanjaro up (Mount) Everest
But hill ranges and mountain ranges have the.
in the Cotswolds across the Alps
NOTE


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in the Cotswolds across the Alps
NOTE
Two exceptions are the Matterhorn and the Eiger. d Lakes, rivers, canals and seas
Lakes are without the.
beside Lake Ontario
Rivers, canals and seas have the.
on the (River) Aire the Missouri (river) building the Panama Canal
the Black Sea in the Pacific (Ocean)
e Cities, towns, suburbs and villages
Most are without the.
in Sydney Kingswood, a suburb of Bristol at Nether Stowey
NOTE Exceptions are The Hague and The Bronx.
f Roads, streets and parks


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f Roads, streets and parks
Most are without the.
off Station Road in Baker Street on Madison Avenue
along Broadway in Regent's Park around Kew Gardens
But some road names with adjectives have the.
the High Street the Great West Road
NOTE
a We use the in this pattern.
the Birmingham road (= the road to Birmingham)
We also use the with some main roads in cities.
the Edgware Road
b We use the with by-passes and motorways.
the York by-pass the M6 (motorway)


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the York by-pass the M6 (motorway)
c Other exceptions are the Mall and the Strand.
g Bridges
Most bridges are without the.
over Brooklyn Bridge Westminster Bridge
But there are many exceptions.
the Humber Bridge (=the bridge over the River Humber)
h Transport facilities; religious, educational and official buildings; palaces and
houses
Most are without the.
to Paddington (Station) at Gatwick (Airport) St Paul's (Cathedral)
at King Edward's (School) from Aston (University) Norwich Museum


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Leeds Town Hall behind Buckingham Palace to Hanover House
Exceptions are names with of-phrases or with an adjective or noun modifier.
the Chapel of Our Lady the American School the Open University
the Science Museum
PAGE 211 171 Place names and the 19 THE ARTICLES: A/AN AND THE
Theatres, cinemas, hotels, galleries and centres
Most have the.
at the Apollo (Theatre) the Odeon (Cinema) to the Empire (Hotel)
in the Tate (Gallery) near the Arndale Centre the Chrysler Building


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Possessive forms are an exception.
Her Majesty's Theatre at Bertram's Hotel
NOTE
In the US names with center are without the.
near Rockefeller Center
Shops and restaurants
Most are without the.
next to W.H. Smiths shopping at Harrods just outside Boots
eating at Matilda's (Restaurant)
Exceptions are those without the name of a person.
the Kitchen Shop at the Bombay Restaurant
NOTE
Most pub names have the.
at the Red Lion (Inn)
172 Ten pounds an hour etc


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at the Red Lion (Inn)
172 Ten pounds an hour etc
1 We can use a/an in expressions of price, speed etc.
Potatoes are twenty pence a pound.
The speed limit on motorways is seventy miles an hour.
Roger shaves twice a day.
NOTE Per is more formal, e.g. seventy miles per hour.
2 In phrases with to we normally use the, although a/an is also possible.
The car does sixty miles to the gallon/to a gallon.
The scale of the map is three miles to the inch/to an inch.


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3 We can use by the to say how something is measured.
Boats can be hired by the day.
Carpets are sold by the square metre.
PAGE 212 PAGE 213
20Possessives and demonstratives
173 Summary
Possessives •174
There are possessive determiners (my, your etc) and possessive pronouns (mine,
yours etc).
It's my book. The book is mine.
These words express a relation, often the fact that something belongs to someone.
Demonstratives • 175


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Demonstratives • 175
This, that, these and those are demonstrative determiners and pronouns.
This programme is interesting. This is interesting.
We use demonstratives to refer to something in the situation, to 'point' to
something. This and these mean something near the speaker. That and those mean
something further away.
174 Possessives
ARRANGING A MEETING
Emma: What about Friday?
Luke: I'll just look in my diary.
Emma: Have you got your diary, Sandy?
Sandy: I think so.


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Sandy: I think so.
Gavin: I haven't got mine with me.
Luke: I can't come on Friday. We're giving a party for one of our neighbours. It's
her birthday.
1 Basic use
We use Possessives to express a relation, often the fact that someone has
something or that something belongs to someone. My diary is the diary that
belongs to me. Compare the possessive form of a noun. • 146
Luke's diary our neighbour's birthday
2 Determiners and pronouns


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2 Determiners and pronouns
a Possessive determiners (sometimes called 'possessive adjectives') come before a
noun.
my diary our neighbour her birthday
NOT the diary of me and NOT the my diary
NOTE
A possessive determiner can come after all, both or half, or after a quantifier + of. • 178(lb, lc)
all my money some of your friends a lot of his time one of our neighbours 20 POSSESSIVES AND DEMONSTRATIVES PAGE
b We leave out the noun if it is clear from the context what we mean. When we do


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this, we use a pronoun. We say mine instead of my diary.
I'll just look in my diary. ~ I haven't got mine with me.
NOT I haven't got my. and NOT I haven't got the mine.
That isn't Harriet's coat. Hers is blue.
Whose is this pen? ~ Yours, isn't it?
A possessive pronoun is often a complement.
Is this diary yours? NOT IS this diary to you?
NOTE
a We can use the possessive form of a noun on its own.
That isn't my diary - it's Luke's.


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That isn't my diary - it's Luke's.
But we do not use an apostrophe with a possessive pronoun. NOT your's
b We can use yours at the end of a letter, e.g. Yours sincerely/faithfully.
3 Form
Determiners Pronouns
Singular Plural Singular Plural
First person my pen our house mine ours
Second person your number your coats yours yours
Third person his father their attitude his theirs
her decision hers
its colour
NOTE
a His is male; her is female; and their is plural.


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Luke's father his father; Emma's father her father;
Luke and Emma's father their father
For the use of he/his, she/her and it/its for males, females and things, • 184 (3b).
b His can be either a determiner or a pronoun.
Has Rory got his ticket?
I've got my ticket. Has Rory got his?
c Its is a determiner but not a pronoun.
The lion sometimes eats its young. Does the tiger (eat its young), I wonder?
NOT Does the tiger eats its?
d Its is possessive, but it's is a short form of it is or it has.


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4 Possessives with parts of the body
We normally use a possessive with people's heads, arms, legs etc, and their
clothes, even if it is clear whose we mean.
What's the matter? ~ I've hurt my back, NOT I've hurt the back.
Both climbers broke their legs.
Brian just stood there with his hands in his pockets.
NOTE
We can use the in this pattern where we have just mentioned the person.
Verb Person Prepositional phrase
The stone hit the policeman on the/his shoulder.
Someone pushed me in the back.


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Someone pushed me in the back.
Nigel took Jemima by the arm.
Compare this sentence.
Nigel looked at Jemima and put his hand on her arm. 174 Possessives
5 A friend of mine
a My friend refers to a definite person, the person I am friends with. To talk about a
person I am friends with, we say one of my friends or a friend of mine.
Definite Indefinite
Singular my friend one of my friends/a friend of mine
Plural my friends some of my friends/some friends of mine


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Here are some examples of the indefinite pattern.
The twins are visiting an uncle of theirs.
NOT a their uncle and NOT an uncle of them
Don't listen to what Graham is saying. It's just a silly idea of his.
Didn't you borrow some cassettes of mine?
b We can also use the possessive form of names and other nouns.
I'm reading a novel of Steinbeck's.
NOT a novel of Steinbeck and NOT a Steinbeck's novel
We met a cousin of Nicola's.
It's just a silly idea of my brother's.
6 Own


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It's just a silly idea of my brother's.
6 Own
a A possessive determiner + own means an exclusive relation.
I'd love to have my own flat.
Students are expected to contribute their own ideas.
My own means 'belonging to me and not to anyone else.'
We can use a phrase like my own without a noun.
The ideas should be your own. (= your own ideas)
NOTE
Own can mean that the action is exclusive to the subject.
You'll have to make your own bed. No one else is going to make it for you.


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b There is also a pattern with of.
I'd love a flat of my own. NOT an own flat
NOTE
Compare the two patterns.
a dog of our own (= a dog belonging only to us)
a dog of ours (= one of our dogs) • (5)
c On your own and by yourself mean 'alone'.
I don't want to walk home on my own/by myself.
7 Idioms
There are also some idiomatic expressions with Possessives.
I'll do my best. (= I'll do as well as I can.)
We took our leave. (= We said goodbye.)
It was your fault we got lost. (= You are to blame.)


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I've changed my mind. (= I've changed the decision I made.) 20 POSSESSIVES AND DEMONSTRATIVES PAGE 216
175 Demonstratives
CHOOSING A GIFT
Debbie: I just want to look at these jugs. I'm going to buy my mother one for her
birthday.
Felicity: Those glass ones are nice.
Debbie: Yes, this one looks the sort of thing she'd like. It's a bit expensive, though.
Felicity: What about this?
Debbie: I don't like that so much.
1 Basic use


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Debbie: I don't like that so much.
1 Basic use
We use demonstratives to 'point' to something in the situation. This and these refer
to something near the speaker. That and those refer to something further away.
This and that are singular. These and those are plural.
2 Forms
Singular
Plural
Determiners Pronouns
this carpet
that colour
these flowers
those hills
this
that
these
those
NOTE An uncountable noun takes this/that, e.g. this money, that music.
3 Determiners and pronouns


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3 Determiners and pronouns
This, that, these and those can be determiners or pronouns. As determiners
(sometimes called 'demonstrative adjectives'), they come before a noun. We can
leave out the noun if the meaning is clear without it.
Determiner: What about this jug?
Pronoun: What about this? 175 Demonstratives
NOTE
a A demonstrative can come after all, both or half or after a quantifier + of • 178(lb, lc)
Both those (cameras) are broken. I've read most of this (book).


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b After a demonstrative, we can use one or ones instead of a singular or plural noun.
What about this (one)? What about these (ones)?
If there is an adjective, we cannot normally leave out one(s), e.g. those big ones. • 188
4 Details about use
a The basic meaning of this/these is 'the thing(s) near the speaker', and of that/those
'the thing(s) further away', both in space and time.
Near: this book (here) this time (now)
Far: that book (there) that time (then)


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Far: that book (there) that time (then)
b When we are in a place or situation or at an event, we use this, not that, to
refer to it.
This town has absolutely no night life.
How long is this weather going to last?
This is a great party.
This town is the town where we are.
NOTE
When we mention something a second time, we use it or they, not a demonstrative.
This is a great party, isn't it? I hope you're enjoying it.
These shoes are wet. I left them out in the rain.


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These shoes are wet. I left them out in the rain.
For these words in indirect speech, • 267(2) Note.
c We can use a demonstrative before words for people.
that waiter (over there) these people (in here)
We can also use this and that on their own when we identify someone.
Mother, this is my friend Duncan. ~ Hello, Duncan.
That was Carol at the door. ~ Oh? What did she want?
On the phone we use this when we identify ourselves and that when we ask who
the other person is.


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the other person is.
This is Steve. Is that you, Shirley?
NOTE For American usage, • 304(5).
d This/these can mean 'now, near in time' and that/those 'then, further away in time'.
My mother is staying with us this week.
Yes, I remember the festival. My mother was staying with us that week.
The only thing people do these days is watch TV.
It was different when I was young. We didn't have TV in those days.
NOTE


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NOTE
a In informal English we can use that/those with something known but not present in the
situation.
Those people next door are away on holiday.
That dress Tanya was wearing yesterday looked really smart.
b In informal English this (instead of a/an) can introduce the topic of a story or joke.
This girl came up to me in a pub and...
Here this girl means 'the girl I'm telling you about now.'
PAGE 217 20 POSSESSIVES AND DEMONSTRATIVES PAGE 218


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e We can use this or that to refer to something mentioned before.
I simply haven't got the money. This is/That's the problem.
Here this/that means 'the fact that I haven't got the money.' That is more usual.
Here are two examples from real conversations.
The rooms are so big. That's why it's cold.
Well, if you haven't got television, you can't watch it. ~ That's true.
But when we refer forward to what we are going to say, we use this.
What I'd like to say is this. The government has...


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f We can use that/those to replace a noun phrase with the and so avoid repeating
the noun.
The temperature of a snake is the same as that of the surrounding air.
(that= the temperature)
Those (people) who ordered lunch should go to the dining-room.
This can happen only when there is a phrase or clause after that/those, e.g. of the
surrounding air. That is rather formal in this pattern. 21Quantifiers
6 Summary
A quantifier is a word like many, a lot of, both, all, enough.


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Large and small quantities • 177
Some quantifiers express a large or small quantity.
Large: The burglars did a lot of damage.
Small: The burglars took a few things.
Whole and part quantities: all, most, both etc • 178
Some quantifiers express the whole or a part of a quantity.
Whole: All crime should be reported.
Part: Most crime remains unsolved.
Some, any and no • 179
Some has two different meanings.
The burglars took some money. (= an amount of money)


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Some (of the) money was recovered. (= a part of the money)
We use any mainly in negatives and questions.
They didn't leave any fingerprints.
Have they done any damage?
But any can also mean 'it doesn't matter which'.
I'm free all week. Come any day you like.
Other quantifiers • 180
Others are enough, plenty of, another and some more.
Quantifiers without a noun •181
We can use a quantifier without a noun.
Some burglars get caught, but most get away.
(most= most burglars)


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(most= most burglars)
OVERVIEW: quantifiers • 182
NOTE
For numbers, • 191.
For quantifiers expressing a comparison, e.g. more, most, fewer, less, • 220.
PAGE 219 21 QUANTIFIERS PAGE 220
177 Large and small quantities
1 A lot of/lots of, many and much
a These express a large quantity. We use a lot of and lots of with plural and
uncountable nouns. But many goes only before plural nouns and much before
uncountable nouns.
Plural: A lot of people/Lots of people work in London.


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There aren't many trains on a Sunday.
Uncountable: You'll have a lot of fun/lots of fun at our Holiday Centre.
There isn't much traffic on a Sunday.
b As a general rule, we use a lot of/lots of in positive statements and many or much
in negatives and questions. But, • (1c).
Positive: There are a lot of tourists here.
Negative: There aren't many tourists here.
Question: Are there many tourists here?
How many tourists come here?


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How many tourists come here?
We also use many or much (but not a lot of) after very, so, too, as and how.
Very many crimes go unreported.
There were so many people we couldn't get in.
There's too much concrete here and not enough grass.
How much support is there for the idea?
NOTE
a Lots of is more informal than a lot of.
b We can use quite and rather before a lot of but not before many or much.
There are quite a lot of tourists here.
c A great many is rather formal.


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c A great many is rather formal.
A great many crimes go unreported.
c A lot of is rather more informal than much/many. In informal English we can use a
lot of in negatives and questions as well as in positive statements.
There aren't a lot of tourists/many tourists here.
Is there a lot of support/much support for the idea?
And in more formal English we can use many and much in positive statements as
well as in negatives and questions.
Many tourists come here year after year.


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Many tourists come here year after year.
2 (A) few, (a) little and a bit of
a A few and a little mean a small quantity. We use them mainly in positive
statements. A few goes only before plural nouns and a little before uncountable
nouns.
Plural: Yes, there are a few night clubs in the city.
Uncountable: I've still got a little money/a bit of money, fortunately.
A bit of means the same as a little, but a bit of is more informal.
NOTE
a We can use quite before a few and a bit of.


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a We can use quite before a few and a bit of.
There are quite a few night clubs in the city.
This means a fairly large quantity, similar to quite a lot of night clubs. b Only gives the phrase a negative meaning.
There are only a few night clubs in the city.
This means a smaller quantity than we might expect.
c Little can also be an adjective, e.g. I know a little/a small night club.
b We can also use few and little without a. The meaning is negative. Compare
these sentences.


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these sentences.
Is this a holiday place? ~ Yes, there are a few tourists here.
(a few tourists = some tourists, a small number)
Is this a holiday place? ~ No, there are few tourists/not many tourists here.
It was three in the morning, but there was a little traffic.
(a little traffic - some traffic, a small amount)
It was three in the morning, so there was little traffic/not much traffic.
In informal speech not many/not much is more usual than few/little.
NOTE


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NOTE
a We can use very before few/little.
There are very few tourists/hardly any tourists here.
b We can use a subject with not many/not much.
Not many tourists come here.
3 Special patterns with many and few
a Many and few can come after the, these/those or a possessive.
The few hotels in the area are always full.
Can you eat up these few peas?
Tim introduced us to one of his many girl-friends.
b Look at this pattern with many a.
Many a ship has come to grief off the coast here.


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Many a ship has come to grief off the coast here.
I've driven along this road many a time.
This is rather literary. In informal speech many times or lots of times would be
more usual.
c Many or few can be a complement.
The disadvantages of the scheme are many.
This is rather literary. Many before the noun is more normal.
The scheme has many disadvantages/a lot of disadvantages.
4 Other expressions for large/small quantities
a Large quantities
A large number of people couldn't get tickets.


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A large number of people couldn't get tickets.
A dishwasher uses a great deal of electricity.
It uses a large/huge/tremendous amount of electricity.
Numerous difficulties were put in my way.
We've got masses of time/heaps of time/loads of time. (informal)
b Small quantities
Several people/A handful of people got left behind.
A computer uses only a small/tiny amount of electricity.
PAGE 221 177 Large and small quantities 21 QUANTIFIERS PAGE 222
178 Whole and part quantities: all, most, both etc


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PACKAGE STEREO SYSTEMS
Package systems are generally advertised on the strength of their features; a
separates system may not have many of these. You may find some of them useful,
but others are gimmicks...
Most package systems have two cassette decks. Both decks play tapes, but only one
can record. All the systems we tested can copy a tape from one deck to the other in
about half the normal playing time.
(from the magazine Which?.)
1 Patterns
a Quantifier + noun


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1 Patterns
a Quantifier + noun
every system both decks most music
NOTE
These are the possible combinations.
Singular Plural Uncountable
all: all systems all music
most: most systems most music
both: both systems
either: either system
neither: neither system
every: every system
each: each system
some: (some system) some systems some music
any: any system any systems any music
no: no system no systems no music
For some, any and no, • 179.
For some + singular noun, • 179(5}.


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For some + singular noun, • 179(5}.
b Quantifier + determiner + noun
all the systems both these decks half my tapes
We can use all, both and half
c Quantifier + of+ determiner + noun
all of the systems both of these decks most of my tapes
We can use many quantifiers: all, both, most, half none, both, either, neither,
each, any, some, many, much, more and one, two, three etc. But exceptions are
every and no.
d Quantifier + of+ pronoun
all of them both of these


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all of them both of these
We can use the same words as in Pattern c.
e Quantifier + one
each one either one
We can use either, neither, every, each and any. The of-pattern can come after one.
each one of the systems either one of them PAGE 223 178 Whole and part quantities
f Quantifier without a noun • 181
Most have two decks.
We can use all quantifiers except every and no.
g Object pronoun + quantifier
I've heard it all before. We tested them both.
We can use all and both in this pattern.


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We can use all and both in this pattern.
h Quantifier in mid position
We all agreed. They were both tested.
We can use all, both and each in mid position, like an adverb.
2 All, most, half and none
a We can use all/most + noun to make a generalization.
All rabbits love green food.
Most package systems have two cassette decks.
Most pollution could be avoided.
These are about rabbits, package systems and pollution in general.
Compare these sentences.


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Compare these sentences.
Most people want a quiet life. Most of the people here are strangers to me.
(people = people in general) (the people = a specific group of people)
NOTE
a For Rabbits love green food, • 162.
b As well as most, we can also use majority of and more than ha/f
The majority of package systems have two cassette decks.
More than half the pollution in the world could, be avoided.
The opposite is minority of or less than half.
A minority of systems have only one deck.


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A minority of systems have only one deck.
b When we are talking about something more specific, we use all/most/half/none + of
+ determiner + noun.
All (of) our rabbits died from some disease.
Most of the pubs around here serve food. NOT the most of the pubs
Copying takes half (of) the normal playing time.
None of these jackets fit me any more.
We can leave out of after all and half. But when there is a pronoun, we always use of.
We had some rabbits, but all of them died.


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We had some rabbits, but all of them died.
I read the book, but I couldn't understand half of it.
NOTE
a We can use half a/an to express quantity.
We waited half an hour. I could only eat half a slice of toast.
b We can use a number after all, e.g. all fifty systems.
c We can use all after an object pronoun.
The rabbits died. We lost them all/all of them.
It can also come in mid position or after the subject.
The systems can all copy a tape from one deck to the other.
The rabbits all died.


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The rabbits all died.
Who went to the disco? ~ We all did. 21 QUANTIFIERS
We cannot use most in this position, but we can use the adverb mostly.
Package systems mostly/usually have two cassette decks.
d None has a negative meaning. We use it with the of-pattern.
None of the rabbits survived. They all died.
NOT All of the rabbits didn't-survive.
But not all means 'less than all'.
Not all the rabbits died. Some of them survived.
NOTE For no and none, • 181(2).
3 Whole


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NOTE For no and none, • 181(2).
3 Whole
We can use whole as an adjective before a singular noun.
Did you copy the whole tape/all the tape? NOT the all tape
This whole idea is crazy. NOT this all idea
You didn't eat a whole chicken!
NOTE
a Compare these sentences.
We spent all day/the whole day (from morning till evening) on the beach.
We spent every day (of the week) on the beach.
b We can also use whole as a noun.
Did you copy the whole of the tape?
4 Both, either and neither


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4 Both, either and neither
a We use these words for two things.
The police set up barriers at both ends of the street.
If you're ambidextrous, you can write with either hand.
both = the one and the other
either = the one or the other
neither = not the one or the other
b Compare both/neither and all/none.
Positive Negative
Two Both prisoners Neither of the prisoners
escaped. escaped.
Three All the prisoners None of the prisoners
or more escaped. escaped.


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or more escaped. escaped.
c Patterns with both are the same as patterns with all. • (2)
Both decks/Both the decks/Both of the decks play tapes.
They both play tapes.
Two prisoners got away, but police caught them both/both of them.
But NOT the both decks
d We use either and neither before a noun or in the of-pattern.
You can use either deck/either of the decks.
Neither of our cars is/are very economical to run.
Neither car is very economical to run.


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Neither car is very economical to run.
PAGE 224 e In positions other than the subject, neither is more emphatic and rather more
formal than not either.
I don't like either of those pictures.
I like neither of those pictures.
f Either or both cannot come before a negative.
Neither of those pictures are any good.
NOT Either/Both of those pictures aren't any good.
5 Every and each
a We use these words before a singular noun to talk about all the members of a


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group. A subject with every or each takes a singular verb.
There were flags flying from every/each building.
Mike grew more nervous with every/each minute that passed.
Every/Each ticket has a number.
In many contexts either word is possible, but there is a difference in meaning.
Every building means 'all the buildings' and implies a large number. Each building
means all the buildings seen as separate and individual, as if we are passing them
one by one.
b Here are some more examples.


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one by one.
b Here are some more examples.
Every shop was open. (= all the shops)
We went into each shop in turn.
Every child is conditioned by its environment. (= all children)
Each child was given a medal with his or her name engraved on it.
Every usually suggests a larger number than each. Each can refer to two or more
things but every to three or more.
The owner's name was painted on each side/on both sides of the van.
Missiles were being thrown from every direction/from all directions.


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NOTE
a We can use almost or nearly with every but not with each.
There were flags flying from almost every building.
b Every single means 'every one without exception'.
Every single child was given a medal.
c We can use their meaning 'his or her'. • 184(5)
Each child had their own medal.
c We often use every with things happening at regular intervals. Each is less usual.
Sandra does aerobics every Thursday/each Thursday.
The meetings are every four weeks.


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The meetings are every four weeks.
We visit my mother every other weekend. (= every second weekend)
d We can use each (but not every) in these patterns.
Each of the students has a personal tutor.
Each has a personal tutor.
Before the visitors left, we gave them each a souvenir.
They each received a souvenir.
Each as an adverb can come after a noun.
The tickets are £5 each.
PAGE 225 178 Whole and part quantities 21 QUANTIFIERS PAGE 226
e We cannot use a negative verb after every/each.


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e We cannot use a negative verb after every/each.
None of the doors were locked. NOT Every/Each door wasn't locked.
But not every means 'less than all'.
Not every door was locked. Some of them were open.
6 Part
Part can be an ordinary noun with a determiner.
This next part of the film is exciting.
But we can also use part of as a quantifier without an article.
(A) part of the film was shot in Iceland.
(A) part of our ceiling fell down.
We normally use part of only before a singular noun.


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some of the students NOT part of the students
NOTE
For a majority we use most.
I was out most of the day. NOT the most part of the day
7 A lot of, many, much, a few and a little
These words express large or small quantities, • 177. But when many, much, a few
and a little express part of a quantity, we use of.
Many of these features are just gimmicks.
Much of my time is spent answering enquiries.
A few of the photos didn't come out properly.
NOTE


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NOTE
a We sometimes use a lot of, much of and a little of with a singular noun.
I didn't see much of the game.
b Compare a lot of for a large quantity and a large part.
She always wears a new dress. She must have a lot of clothes. (= a large number)
A lot of these clothes here can be thrown out. (= a large part)
179 Some, any and no
1 Some/any expressing a quantity
b Some expresses a positive quantity. Some nails = a number of nails. But any does


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not have this positive meaning. We use any mainly in negatives and questions.
Positive: I've got some wood.
Negative: 1 haven't got any wood.
Question: Have you got any/some wood?
Any means that the quantity may be zero.
NOTE
a In a negative sentence we can sometimes use any+ singular noun.
Pass me the hammer. ~ I can't see any hammer/a hammer.
b For a special use of any, • (4).
Here some is usually pronounced or For , • (3).


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Here some is usually pronounced or For , • (3).
a Some + plural or uncountable noun is equivalent to a/an + singular noun. •164
You'll need a hammer, some nails and some wood. c In negative sentences we almost always use any and not some. This includes
sentences with negative words like never and hardly.
I can't find any nails. I never have any spare time.
We've won hardly any games this season.
I'd like to get this settled without any hassle.


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I'd like to get this settled without any hassle.
d Any is more usual in questions, and it leaves the answer open.
Have you got any nails? ~ Yes./No./I don't know.
Did you catch any fish? ~ Yes, a few./No, not many.
But we use some to give the question a more positive tone, especially when making
an offer or request. It suggests that we expect the answer yes.
Did you catch some fish? (I expect you caught some fish.)
Would you like some cornflakes? (Have some cornflakes.)


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Could you lend me some money? (Please lend me some money.)
e In an if-clause we can choose between some and any. Some is more positive.
If you need some/any help, do let me know.
We can use any in a main clause to express a condition.
Any problems will be dealt with by our agent.
(= If there are any problems, they will be dealt with by our agent.)
f We choose between compounds with some or any in the same way.
There was someone in the phone box.
There isn't anywhere to leave your coat.


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There isn't anywhere to leave your coat.
Have you got anything/something suitable to wear?
Could you do something for me?
2 No
a No is a negative word. We can use it with both countable and uncountable nouns.
There is no alternative.
There are no rivers in Saudi Arabia.
The driver had no time to stop.
There is no alternative is more emphatic than There isn't any alternative.
b We can use no with the subject but we cannot use any.
No warning was given./A warning was not given.


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No warning was given./A warning was not given.
NOT Any warning was not given.
c We cannot use the quantifier no without a noun. For none, • 181 (3).
3 Some expressing part of a quantity
We can use some to mean 'some but not all'.
Some fish can change their sex.
Some trains have a restaurant car.
Some of the fish in the tank were a beautiful blue colour.
Some of the canals in Venice have traffic lights.
PAGE 227 179 Some, any and no NOTE
Compare the use of all and some.


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Compare the use of all and some.
General: All fish can swim. Some fish can change their sex.
Specific: All of these fish are mine. Some of these fish are blue.
4 A special use of any
a We sometimes use any to mean 'it doesn't matter which'.
You can choose any colour you like.
Play any music. I don't mind what you play.
The delegation will be here at any minute.
Everyone knows the town hall. Any passer-by will be able to direct you.


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Any refers to one part of the whole. All passers-by know where the town hall is, so
you only need to ask one of them. But it doesn't matter which one - you can ask
any of them. They are all equally good.
b Compare either and any.
Two: There are two colours. You can have either of them.
(= one of the two)
Three or There are several colours. You can have any of them.
more: (= one of the several)
c We can use compounds of any in the same way.
The door isn't locked. Anyone can just walk in.


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The door isn't locked. Anyone can just walk in.
What do you want for lunch?~ Oh, anything. I don't mind.
5 Special uses of some
a Some + singular noun can mean an indefinite person or thing.
Some idiot dropped a milk bottle.
The flight was delayed for some reason (or other).
Some idiot means 'an unknown idiot'. It is not important who the idiot is.
b Some day/time means an indefinite time in the future.
I'll be famous some day/one day.
You must come and see me some time.
21 QUANTIFIERS PAGE 228


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21 QUANTIFIERS PAGE 228
Compare the two meanings of some.
Some people enjoy quiz shows. = some but not all
There were some people in the garden. = some but not very many
c Some can express strong feeling about something.
That was some parade (, wasn't it?).
Here some is pronounced It means that the parade was special, perhaps a
large and impressive one.
NOTE
We can use any with the opposite meaning.
This isn't just any parade. It's a rather special one.
d Some before a number means 'about'.


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d Some before a number means 'about'.
Some twenty people attended the meeting. 180 Other quantifiers
1 Enough and plenty of
a We can use enough before a plural or an uncountable noun.
There aren't enough people to play that game.
Have we enough time for a quick coffee?
We can also use the of-pattern.
I've written enough of this essay for today.
NOTE For enough as an adverb, • 212(1b).
b Plenty of means 'more than enough'.
There'll be plenty of people to lend a hand.


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There'll be plenty of people to lend a hand.
Yes, we've got plenty of time.
NOTE
We use plenty of to talk about something which is a good thing. For 'more than enough' in a
bad sense we use too many/too much.
The store was very crowded. There were too many people to look round properly.
2 Another and some more
a These express an extra quantity. We use another with a singular noun and some
more with a plural or an uncountable noun.
Singular: Have another sausage. ~ No, thanks. I've had enough.


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Plural: Have some more beans. ~ Thank you.
Uncountable: Have some more cheese. ~ Yes, I will. Thank you.
b Another can mean either 'an extra one' or 'a different one'.
We really need another car. One isn't enough for us. (= an extra one)
I'm going to sell this car and get another one. (= a different one)
NOTE We always write another as one word.
c In some contexts we use any rather than some. • 179(1)
There aren't any more sausages, I'm afraid.


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There aren't any more sausages, I'm afraid.
Before more we can also use a lot, lots, many, much, a few, a little and a bit.
I shall need a few more lessons before I can ski properly.
Since the revolution there has been a lot more food in the shops.
Can't you put a little more effort into it?
NOTE
We can sometimes use more on its own instead of some more.
Who'd like more sausages?
3 Other
a Other is an adjective meaning 'different'.
You 're supposed to go out through the other door.


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Do other people find these packets difficult to open, too?
180 Other quantifiersPAGE 229 21 QUANTIFIERS PAGE 230
We can use other/others without a noun to refer to things or people.
You take one bag and I'll take the other (one).
They ate half the sandwiches. The others/The rest were thrown away.
Some pubs serve food, but others don't.
I came on ahead. The others will be here soon. (= the other people)
NOTE
The other day/week means 'recently, not long ago'.
I saw Miranda the other day.


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I saw Miranda the other day.
b We use another before a number + noun, even when the number is more than one.
We were enjoying ourselves so much we decided to stay on for another three days/
for three more days.
Here we are talking about an extra period, an extra number of days.
We can use other (= different) after a number.
There are two other rooms/two more rooms/another two rooms upstairs.
181 Quantifiers without a noun
1 We can use a quantifier without a noun, like a pronoun.


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DEPARTMENT STORES IN LONDON
There are several large stores in London where you can buy practically anything;
others are more specialized but still offer a wide choice of goods. Most have coffee
shops and restaurants serving good, reasonably priced lunches and teas; many
also have hairdressing salons.
(from R. Nicholson The London Guide)
It is clear from the context that most means 'most department stores' and many
means 'many department stores'. Here are some more quantifiers that we might


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use in this context.
Some sell food. A few are outside the West End.
Two have car parks. None stay open all night.
We can also use the of-pattern.
Many of them also have hairdressing salons.
NOTE
a After some quantifiers we can use one instead of a noun. • 189
I tried three doors, and each (one) was locked.
b All as a pronoun is possible but a little unusual.
All open on Saturday.
We normally use a different pattern.
All of them open on Saturday. They all open on Saturday.


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But we sometimes use all+ clause meaning 'everything' or 'the only thing'.
I've told you all I know. All you need is love.
All can also mean 'everyone', although this use is old-fashioned and often formal.
All (those) in favour raise your hands. All were prepared to risk their lives.
c We can use another without a noun or with one.
The first bus was full, but another (one) soon arrived.
We can do the same with the adjective other.
I'll take one suitcase, and you take the other (one).


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But when we leave out a plural noun, we use others or ones with an s.
These letters are yours, and the others are mine/the other ones are mine.
Some stores sell anything. Others are more specialized. PAGE 231 182 Overview: quantifiers
We can use each without a noun but not every.
Each can choose its own half day.
NOT Every can cheese-its own half day.
We cannot use no without a noun. We use none instead.
There are several routes up the mountain. None (of them) are easy.


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We can also use a lot, plenty etc. When the quantifier is without a noun, we do not
use of.
A lot serve lunches.
If you want to climb a mountain, there are plenty to choose from.
The area has millions of visitors, a large number arriving by car.
Of must have a noun or pronoun after it.
A lot (of them/of the stores) serve lunches.
182 Overview: quantifiers
This overview shows some ways of expressing different quantities. The examples


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show which kinds of noun are possible in the different patterns: singular (letter),
plural (letters), or uncountable (money).
Large/small quantity Whole/part quantity • 178
Total all letters/money (in general)
all (of) the letter (s) / money
the whole letter
every leach letter • 178(5)
each of these letters
Of two • 178(4)
both (your) letters
both of your letters
either letter
either of the letters
Majority most letters/money (in general)
• 178(2) most of my letter (s) / money


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• 178(2) most of my letter (s) / money
Large a lot of letters/money a lot of the letter (s) / money
• 177(1) many letters many of his letters
a large number of letters much of this letter/money
much money •178(7)
a large amount of money
a great deal of money
Neutral some letters/money some (of the) letter (s) / money
• 179(3)• 179(1)
a number of letters part of that letter/money • 178(6)
an amount of money Half • 178(2) half (of) the letter(s)/money


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Small several letters several of those letters
(positive) a few letters a few of the letters
• 177(2a) a small number of letters
a little money a little of his letter/our money
a bit of money a bit of that letter/money
a small amount of money
Small few letters few of our letters
(negative) not many letters not many of these letters
• 177(2b) little money little of the letter/money
not much money not much of that letter/money
hardly any letters/money hardly any of the letter(s)/money


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Zero no letter(s)/money none of the letters/money • 178(2)
• 179(2) no part of this letter/money
Of two • 178(4)
neither letter
neither of the letters
21 QUANTIFIERS PAGE 232 22Pronouns
183 Summary
Personal pronouns • 184
We use personal pronouns for the speaker (I) and the person spoken to (you). We
use he, she, it and they to refer to other people and things when it is clear from the
context what we mean.
Judy isn't coming with us. She isn't very well.


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Judy isn't coming with us. She isn't very well.
Personal pronouns have both a subject and an object form.
I'm coming. Wait for me.
Special uses of you, one, we and they • 185
We can use you, one, we and they to refer to people in general.
You can't buy much for a pound.
They're putting up the prices.
Reflexive pronouns, emphatic pronouns and each other • 186
Reflexive pronouns refer to the subject of the sentence.
Helen looked at herself in the mirror.


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Helen looked at herself in the mirror.
Emphatic pronouns lay emphasis on a noun phrase.
Helen did the wallpapering herself.
We use each other when the action goes in both directions.
Helen and Tim write each other long, passionate letters.
OVERVIEW: personal pronouns, Possessives and reflexives • 187
Pronouns are related to possessive forms: I/me - my - mine - myself.
One and ones • 188
We can use one(s) to replace a noun.
I'll have a cola. A large one.


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I'll have a cola. A large one.
We can use one to replace a noun phrase with a/an.
1 need a pound coin. Have you got one?
Everyone, something etc • 189
There are the compound pronouns everyone, something etc.
Everyone came to the party.
NOTE
For question words (who, what etc) used as pronouns, • 27.
For possessive pronouns (mine, yours etc), • 174.
For demonstrative pronouns (this, that, these, those), • 175.
For quantifiers used as pronouns (some, many, a few etc), • 181.


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For relative pronouns (who, whom, which, that), • 271. 22 PRONOUNS PAGE 234
184 Personal pronouns
In this real conversation, Avril, Lucy and Sarah are talking about Lucy's brother.
WHAT DOES MATTHEW LOOK LIKE?
Avril: If we said to you now, 'What does Matthew look like?' you probably
wouldn't be able to give as good a description as we could.
Lucy: Oh yes, I could.
Avril: All right then. What does he look like?
Lucy: No, you describe him to me and I'll tell you if you're right.


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Avril: Well, he's quite tall, over six foot. And he's thin.
Lucy: Well, yes, I suppose so.
Avril: Well, in proportion with his height, and he's got fairly short black hair,...
Lucy: Not very short.
Avril: Well, perhaps it's grown since I saw him.
Lucy: It's short as opposed to long.
Avril: I couldn't tell you what colour his eyes were.
(from M. Underwood Have you heard?)
1 Introduction
a 'Personal pronouns' do not always refer to people. 'Personal' means first person


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(the speaker), second person (the person spoken to) and third person (another
person or thing). These are the forms.
Singular Plural
Subject Object Subject Object
First person I me we us
Second person you you you you
Third person he him they them
she her
it it
NOTE
a The pronoun I is always a capital letter,
b You is the only second-person form.
You're quite right, Avril. You're late, all of you.
c For weak forms of pronouns, • 55(1b).
We use the subject form when the pronoun is the subject.


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I couldn't tell you. Well, he's quite tall.
We use the object form when the pronoun is not the subject.
You describe him to me.
We also use the object form when the pronoun is on its own. Compare:
Who invited Matthew? ~ I did. Who invited Matthew? ~ Me.
NOTE
We sometimes use a subject pronoun as complement.
The young man looked rather like Matthew, but it wasn't him/he.
Who's that? ~ It's me./It is I.
Sarah knows all about it. It was her/she who told me.


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The subject pronoun in this position is old-fashioned and often formal. The object pronoun
is normal, especially in informal speech. For pronouns after as and than, • 221(5). c We can use and or or with a pronoun, especially with I and you.
Matthew and I are good friends.
Would you and your sisters like to come with us?
Sarah didn't know whether to ring you or me.
We normally put I/me last, NOT I and Matthew are good friends.
NOTE


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NOTE
In a phrase with and or or, an object pronoun is sometimes used in subject position.
Matthew and me are good friends. You or him can have a turn now.
This happens only in informal English and is seen by many people as wrong. Some people
incorrectly use I even when the phrase is not the subject.
It's a present from Matthew and I.
d We cannot normally leave out a pronoun.
Well, he's quite tall, NOT Well, is quite tall.
You describe him to me. NOT You describe to me.


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You describe him to me. NOT You describe to me.
But we can leave out some subject pronouns in informal speech. • 42
e We do not normally use a pronoun together with a noun.
Matthew is quite tall, NOT Matthew he's quite tall.
NOTE
a A pronoun comes after the noun in this pattern with as for.
As for Matthew, he's quite tall.
In informal speech, we can leave out as for.
Matthew, he's quite tall.
Those new people, I saw them yesterday.


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Those new people, I saw them yesterday.
Here we mention the topic (Matthew, those new people) and then use a pronoun to
refer to it.
b In informal speech we can use this pattern.
He's quite tall, Matthew.
It was late, the five o'clock train.
I saw them yesterday, those new people.
c We sometimes use a noun phrase after a pronoun to make clear who or what the pronoun
refers to.
Matthew was waiting for David. He, Matthew, felt worried./He (Matthew) felt worried.


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A We can sometimes use a phrase after a pronoun to modify it.
We left-handed people should stick together.
You alone must decide. Look at her over there.
2 We
A plural pronoun refers to more than one person or thing. We means the speaker
and one or more other people. We can include or exclude the person spoken to.
We're late. ~ Yes, we'd better hurry. (we = you and I)
We're late. ~ You'd better hurry then. (we = someone else and I)
3 Third-person pronouns


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3 Third-person pronouns
a We use a third-person pronoun instead of a full noun phrase when it is clear what
we mean. In the conversation at the beginning of 184, Matthew is mentioned only
once. After that the speakers refer to him by pronouns because they know who
they are talking about.
What does he look like? You describe him. Well, he's quite tall.
But we cannot use a pronoun when it is not clear who it refers to. Look at the


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paragraph on the next page about the Roman generals Caesar and Pompey.
PAGE 235 184 Personal pronouns 22 PRONOUNS PAGE 236
There was a great war between Caesar and the Senate; the armies of the Senate
were commanded by another Roman general, Pompey, who had once been
friendly with Caesar. Pompey was beaten in battle, fled to the kingdom of Egypt,
and was murdered. Caesar became master of Rome and the whole of the Roman
Empire in 46 BC.
(from T. Cairns The Romans and their Empire)


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(from T. Cairns The Romans and their Empire)
Here Caesar and Pompey have to be repeated. For example He was beaten in battle
would not make it clear who was beaten.
NOTE
A pronoun usually goes after the full noun phrase, but it can come first.
When she got home, Claire rang to thank us.
b He/him, she/her and it are singular. He means a male person, she means a female
person and it means something not human such as a thing, an action or an idea.


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I like Steve. He's great fun. I like Helen. She's great fun.
I like that game. It's great fun.
We also use it when talking about someone's identity. It means 'the unknown
person'.
There's someone at the door. It's probably the milkman.
Compare these sentences.
Don't you remember Celia? She was a great friend of mine.
Don't you remember who gave you that vase? It was Celia.
NOTE
a We can use he or she for an animal if we know the animal's sex and we feel sympathy or


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interest. Compare these sentences.
He's a lovely little dog. It's a really vicious dog.
b We can use she/her for a country when we see it as having human qualities.
The country's oil has given it/her economic independence.
c We sometimes use it for a human baby of unknown sex.
Look at that baby. It's been sick.
d We do not normally stress it, but we can stress this/that.
Good heavens! Half past ten! Is that the right time?
c They/them is plural and can refer to both people and things.


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I like your cousins. They're great fun. I like these pictures. They're super.
4 Overview: uses of it
Use Example
To refer to something I've lost my wallet. I can't find it anywhere.
non-human, e.g. a thing, Look at this water. It's a funny colour
a substance, an action, Going on all those long walks was hard work. ~
a feeling, an idea or It was exhausting.
a statement Love is a funny thing, isn't it?
Everyone knows we cheated. It was obvious.


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Everyone knows we cheated. It was obvious.
Identifying a person Who's this photo of? Is it your sister?
As empty subject • 50(5) It's raining.
It's strange that your dream came true.
To give emphasis • 51 (3) It was Matthew who told me. 185 Special uses of you, one, we and they
5 They for someone of unknown sex
There is a problem in English when we want to talk about a single person whose
sex is not known. Here are three possible ways.


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sex is not known. Here are three possible ways.
1 When the millionth visitor arrives, he will be given a free ticket. His photo will be
taken by a press photographer.
2 When the millionth visitor arrives, he or she will be given a free ticket. His or her
photo will be taken by a press photographer.
3 When the millionth visitor arrives, they will be given a free ticket. Their photo
will be taken by a press photographer.


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will be taken by a press photographer.
The use of he in sentence (1) is seen by many people as sexist and is less common
than it used to be. But (2) is awkward and we often avoid it, especially in speech.
In (3) they is used with a singular meaning. Some people see this as incorrect,
but it is neater than (2), and it is quite common, especially in informal English.
NOTE
a The problem disappears if we can use a plural noun. Compare these two sentences.


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A student is expected to arrange his or her own accommodation.
Students are expected to arrange their own accommodation.
b Sometimes we write he/she instead of he or she.
He/she will be presented with a video camera.
185 Special uses of you, one, we and they
1 You
This real conversation contains two examples of the pronoun you meaning 'people
in general'.
DRESSING FOR DINNER
Mary: Well, what sort of clothes do women wear these days to sort of have dinner
in a hotel on holiday?


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in a hotel on holiday?
Celia: I think you can wear anything these days.
Felix: Long skirt and top, that's what my wife always wears.
Mary: What do you mean 'top'?
Felix: Well, depending on how warm it is, you can either have a thin blouse or a
blouse over a jumper.
(from M. Underwood Have you heard?)
Compare the two meanings of you.
What do you mean? (you = Felix, the person spoken to)
You can wear anything these days. (you = women in general)
2 One and you


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2 One and you
a We can also use one to mean 'any person, people in general', including the
speaker. One is a third-person pronoun.
One/You can't ignore the problem.
One doesn't/You don't like to complain.
PAGE 237 22 PRONOUNS PAGE 23
This use of you is rather informal. One is more formal. It is less common than the
equivalent pronoun in some other languages, and it cannot refer to groups which
do not include the speaker.
NOT One is going to knock this building down. • (4)
NOTE


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NOTE
In Britain one is typical of upper-class speech, especially one instead of I.
I hope/One hopes things will improve.
b One can be the object.
Ice-cream is full of calories. It makes one hotter, not cooler.
It also has a possessive form one's and a reflexive/emphatic form oneself.
One should look after one's health.
One should look after oneself.
NOTE For American usage, • 304(6).
3 We
We can also mean 'people in general', 'all of us', especially when we talk about


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shared knowledge and behaviour.
We know that nuclear power has its dangers.
We use language to communicate.
4 They
We can use they to mean 'other people in general' and especially the relevant
authorities.
They're going to knock this building down.
They ought to ban those car phones.
They always show old films on television on holiday weekends.
We can also use they to talk about general beliefs.
They say/People say you can get good bargains in the market.


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They say/Experts say the earth is getting warmer.
186 Reflexive pronouns, emphatic pronouns and
each other
1 Form
We form reflexive/emphatic pronouns with self or selves.
Singular Plural
First person myself ourselves
Second person yourself yourselves
Third person himself/herself/itself themselves
oneself •185(2b) 2 Reflexive pronouns
a We use a reflexive pronoun as object or complement when it refers to the same
thing as the subject.
I fell over and hurt myself.


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I fell over and hurt myself.
Van Gogh painted himself lots of times.
We suddenly found ourselves in the middle of a hostile crowd.
The company's directors have given themselves a big pay rise.
Marion didn't look herself/her usual self.
We use me, him etc only if it means something different from the subject.
Van Gogh painted himself. (a picture of Van Gogh)
Van Gogh painted him. (a picture of someone else)
NOTE
a We can also use a reflexive pronoun in a sub clause.


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We saw the woman fall and hurt herself.
Giving themselves a pay rise wasn't very diplomatic of the directors.
b Myself is sometimes an alternative to me.
You should get in touch either with Peter or myself.
b After a preposition we sometimes use me, you etc and sometimes myself, yourself
etc. We use me, you etc after a preposition of place when it is clear that the
pronoun must refer to the subject.
I didn't have my driving licence with me.
My mother likes all the family around her.


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My mother likes all the family around her.
Sometimes we use a reflexive to make the meaning clear.
I bought these chocolates for myself. (not for someone else)
Vincent has a very high opinion of himself. (not of someone else)
We also use myself etc rather than me etc after a prepositional verb, e.g. believe in.
If you're going to succeed in life, you must believe in yourself.
We're old enough to look after ourselves.
NOTE By yourse/f means 'alone'. • 174(6c)


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NOTE By yourse/f means 'alone'. • 174(6c)
c There are some idiomatic uses of a verb + reflexive pronoun.
I hope you enjoy yourself. (= have a good time)
Did the children behave themselves? (= behave well)
Can we just help ourselves? (= take e.g. food)
d Some verbs taking a reflexive pronoun in other languages do not do so in English.
We'll have to get up early. Won't you sit down?
I feel so helpless. He can't remember what happened.


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Such verbs are afford, approach, complain, concentrate, feel + adjective, get up,
hurry (up), lie down, relax, remember, rest, sit down, stand up, wake up, wonder,
worry.
e These verbs do not usually take a reflexive pronoun: wash, bath, shave, (un)dress
and change (your clothes).
Tom dressed quickly and went down to breakfast.
NOTE
a We can use a reflexive pronoun when the action is difficult.
The old man was unable to dress himself.


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The old man was unable to dress himself.
My back was very painful, but I managed to get myself dressed.
PAGE 239 186 Reflexive pronouns etc 22 PRONOUNS PAGE 240
b Dry in this context takes a reflexive.
Tom dried himself on a large yellow bath towel.
c We often use get washed, get shaved, get (un)dressed and get changed.
Tom got dressed quickly and went down to breakfast.
d For have a wash/bath/shave, • 87.
3 Emphatic pronouns


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3 Emphatic pronouns
a We use an emphatic pronoun to emphasize a noun phrase. Self/selves is stressed.
Walt Disney himself was the voice of Mickey Mouse.
(= Walt Disney, not someone else)
The town itself is very ordinary, but it is set in lovely countryside.
(= the town, not its surroundings)
b The pronoun can also mean 'without help'. In this meaning, it usually comes in
end position.
We built the garage ourselves.
Did you do all this electrical wiring yourself?
NOTE


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NOTE
Myself sometimes means 'as for me', 'as far as I am concerned'.
I don't agree with it, myself.
4 Each other/one another
a These are sometimes called 'reciprocal pronouns.' They refer to an action going in
one direction and also back in the opposite direction.
The students help each other/one another with their homework.
The two drivers blamed each other/one another for the accident.
England and Portugal have never been at war with each other/one another.
There is a possessive form.


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There is a possessive form.
Tracy and Sarah are the same size. They often wear each other's/one another's
clothes.
b Compare the reflexive pronoun and each other.
They've hurt themselves. They've hurt each other.
c There is also a pattern each... the other.
Each driver blamed the other. Each girl wears the other's clothes.
NOTE
Compare one ...the other, which means an action in one direction only.
An airline once employed two psychiatrists to watch the passengers and arrest anyone whose


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nervous behaviour suggested they might be a hi-jacker. On their first flight one of the
psychiatrists arrested the other. 188 One and ones
187 Overview: personal pronouns, Possessives and
reflexives
Personal pronouns • 184 Possessives • 174 Reflexive/emphatic
pronouns • 186
Subject Object Determiners Pronouns
SINGULAR
First person I me my mine myself
Second person you you your yours yourself
Third person he him his his himself
she her her hers herself
it it its itself
PLURAL


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she her her hers herself
it it its itself
PLURAL
First person we us our ours ourselves
Second person you you your yours yourselves
Third person they them their theirs themselves
188 One and ones
1 We sometimes use one or ones instead of a noun. Here are some examples from
real conversations.
I felt I could afford a bigger car, and the one I'd got was on its last legs, really.
(the one = the car)
Now I will think everywhere I go on an aeroplane 'Is this one going to come


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down?' (this one = this aeroplane)
And what other stamps do you like besides Polish ones? ~ English ones. We've got
a lot of those. (English ones = English stamps)
One is singular and ones is plural. We use one/ones to avoid repeating a noun when
it is clear from the context what we mean.
NOTE
We cannot use one/ones instead of an uncountable noun, but we can leave out the noun.
This is plain paper. I wanted lined.
2 Sometimes we can either use one/ones or leave it out. But sometimes we have to


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use it if we leave out the noun.
a Patterns where we can leave out one/ones
After a demonstrative
These pictures are nice. I like this (one).
After each, any, another, either and neither.
The building had six windows. Each (one) had been broken.
After which
There are lots of seats still available. Which (ones) would you like?
After a superlative
These stamps are the nicest (ones).
PAGE 241 22 PRONOUNS PAGE 242
b Patterns where we have to use one/ones
After an adjective (But • Note)


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After an adjective (But • Note)
An orange juice. A large one, please.
I didn't buy a calculator. They only had expensive ones.
After the
This television is better than the one we had before.
After every
The building had lots of windows. Every one had been broken.
NOTE
We can sometimes leave out one/ones when we use two adjectives.
We've got French books and German (ones).
Are these the old prices or the new (ones)?
We can also leave out one/ones after an adjective of colour.


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My toothbrush is the blue (one).
3 We cannot use one after a. We leave out a.
Whenever you need a phone box, you can never find one. (= a phone box)
I don't know anything about weddings. I haven't been to one lately. (= a wedding)
4 Compare one/some and it/they.
I haven't got a rucksack. I'll have to buy one. (= a rucksack)
I haven't got any boots. I'll have to buy some. (= some boots)
I've got a rucksack. You can borrow it. (= the rucksack)


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I've got some boots, but they might not fit you. (= the boots)
One and some are indefinite (like a). It and they are definite (like the).
5 Here is an overview of the uses of one and ones.
Use/Meaning Example
The number 1 Just wait one moment.
With of Would you like one of these cakes?
• 188(2) Replacing a noun A whisky, please. A large one.
Two coffees, please. Small ones.
• 188(3) Replacing a/an + noun I've just baked these cakes. Would you
like one?


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like one?
• 185(2) 'Any person' One shouldn't criticize.
189 Everyone, something etc
1 Every, some, any and no form compound pronouns ending in one/body and thing
(sometimes called 'indefinite pronouns') and compound adverbs ending in where.
a everyone/everybody - all (the) people
Everyone has heard of Elton John,
someone/somebody - a person
Someone broke a window,
no one/nobody = no people


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Someone broke a window,
no one/nobody = no people
The bar's empty. There's nobody in there. One and body have the same meaning in compound pronouns. We use everyone
and everybody in the same way.
NOTE
a Every one as two words can refer to things as well as people.
The comedian told several jokes. Everyone laughed loudly. (stress on every)
The comedian told several jokes. Every one I had heard before. (stress on one)


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b All and none do not normally mean 'everyone' and 'nobody'. But we can say all of/none of
the people.
c Compare someone and one.
Someone knows what happened. (= one person)
One knows what happened. (= people in general)
d We write no one as two words.
b We use thing for things, actions, ideas etc.
Take everything out of the drawer. (= all the things)
There's something funny going on. (= an action)
I've heard nothing about all this. (= no information)
PAGE 243 189 Everyone, something etc


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PAGE 243 189 Everyone, something etc
NOTE Nothing is pronounced
c everywhere = (in) all (the) places
I've been looking everywhere for you.
somewhere = (in) a place
Have you found somewhere to sit?
nowhere = (in) no places
There's nowhere to leave your coat.
NOTE For American someplace etc, • 305 (3).
2 The difference between someone/something and anyone/anything is like the
difference between some and any. • 179
There's someone in the waiting-room.
I can't see anyone in the waiting-room.


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I can't see anyone in the waiting-room.
Park somewhere along here. Anywhere will do.
3 Pronouns in one/body have a possessive form.
I need everyone's name and address.
Somebody's car is blocking the road.
4 We can use an adjective or a phrase or clause after everyone etc.
We need someone strong to help move the piano, NOT -strong someone
Have you got anything cheaper? NOT anything of cheaper
Nobody in our group is interested in sightseeing.
I've told you everything I know.


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I've told you everything I know.
We can also use else after everyone etc.
Is there anything else you want? (= any other thing)
Let's go somewhere else. (= to another place)
NOTE
a A phrase with one/body + else can be possessive.
But everyone else's parents let them stay out late.
b We cannot use than after else.
How about someone other than me washing up? 22 PRONOUNS PAGE
5 Everyone, something etc take a singular verb. • 153(3)
Everything was in a mess.


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Everything was in a mess.
After everyone we normally use they/them/their, even though the verb is singular.
Everyone was asked what they thought.
Everybody was doing their best to help.
This can also happen with other words in one/body. • 184(5)
Someone has left their coat here. ~ I think it's Paul's.
NOTE
Someone and something usually have a singular meaning.
Someone was injured in the accident. (= one person)
Some people were injured in the accident. (= more than one person)


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Something was stolen. (= one thing)
Some things were stolen. (= more than one thing) 23Numbers and measurements
190 Summary
Cardinal numbers •191
one, two, three etc
Ordinal numbers • 192
first, second, third etc
Fractions, decimals and percentages • 193
three quarters point seven five seventy-five per cent
Number of times • 194
once, twice, three times etc
Times and dates • 195
We use numbers when giving the time and the date.
twenty past six October 17th
Some other measurements • 196


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Some other measurements • 196
We also use numbers to express an amount of money, length, weight etc.
191 Cardinal numbers
1 one 11 eleven
2 two 12 twelve
3 three 13 thirteen
4 four 14 fourteen
5 five 15 fifteen
6 six 16 sixteen
7 seven 17 seventeen
8 eight 18 eighteen
9 nine 19 nineteen
10 ten 20 twenty
1 23 NUMBERS AND MEASUREMENTS PAGE 246
21 twenty-one 100 a/one hundred
22 twenty-two 102 a/one hundred and two
30 thirty 164 a/one hundred and sixty-four
40 forty 596 five hundred and ninety-six


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40 forty 596 five hundred and ninety-six
50 fifty 7,830 seven thousand eight hundred and thirty
60 sixty 1,000,000 a/one million
70 seventy 1,000,000,000 a/one billion
80 eighty
90 ninety
NOTE
a Be careful with these spellings: fifteen, eighteen, forty, fifty, eighty.
b We can use a or one before hundred, thousand, million etc.
There's a hundred/one hundred metres to go!
I've told you a thousand times not to do that.
Unemployment stands at one million four hundred thousand.


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A is informal. One is usual in longer numbers. We cannot leave out a or one.
NOT I've told you thousand times.
c Hundred, thousand, million etc are singular except in the of-pattern. • (3)
d We use and between hundred and the rest of the number (but not usually in
the USA, • 304(7)).
e We put a hyphen in twenty-one, sixty-five etc, but not before hundred, thousand or million.
f We can write a thousand as 1,000 or 1 000 or 1000 but not 1.000.


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g For the numbers 1100, 1200 etc up to 1900, we sometimes say eleven hundred, twelve
hundred etc.
The hostage spent over fourteen hundred days in captivity.
h In British English one billion can sometimes mean 1,000,000,000,000.
i We sometimes use alone dozen for 12.
half a dozen eggs (= 6 eggs)
And in informal English we can use a couple for two.
We'll have to wait a couple of minutes.
2 Here are some examples of numbers in written English.
free for 10 days 450 million trees the last 2 years


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in 24 other towns and cities 35,000 free air miles to be won
aged 2 to 11 inclusive an apartment for 6 see page 10
Sometimes numbers are written in words, especially small numbers.
one of four super prizes two bedrooms (one double and one single)
3 To express a large but indefinite number we can use dozens of, hundreds of,
thousands of and millions of.
There were hundreds of people in the square, NOT eight hundreds of...
A drop of water consists of millions of atoms.
NOTE


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NOTE
We can use a definite number with the of-pattern for part of a quantity.
One of these letters is for you. Four of the passengers were injured.
4 We can use words and phrases like these to give an approximate number.
about two years around a thousand pounds approximately four miles
Here are some other ways of modifying a number.
more than 100 destinations over 5 metres long
less than ten miles below 10,000 feet children under 3


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only £14.99 at least 3 weeks sleeps up to 6 people 1st first 8th eighth
2nd second 9th ninth
3rd third 12th twelfth
4th fourth 13th thirteenth
5th fifth 20th twentieth
5 We also use numbers to identify someone or something, for example on a credit
card, passport or ticket. We read each figure separately.
Express Card 4929 806 317 445
'four nine two nine, eight oh six, three one seven, double four five'
Call us on 0568 92786
'oh five six eight, nine two seven eight six'
NOTE


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NOTE
We say 'oh' for the figure 0 in these numbers. When we talk about this figure, we use nought.
You've missed out a nought here.
But in the USA (and sometimes in Britain) we say 'zero' for 0.
192 Ordinal numbers
1 We form most ordinals by adding th to the cardinal number, e.g. ten tenth.
Twenty, thirty etc have ordinals twentieth, thirtieth etc. First, second and third are
irregular.
21st twenty-first
22nd twenty-second
54th fifty-fourth
100th hundredth
347th three hundred and forty-seventh


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347th three hundred and forty-seventh
NOTE Be careful with these spellings: fifth, eighth, ninth, twelfth and twentieth etc.
2 Here are some examples.
her 65th birthday on the 83rd floor
The third and fourth adult passengers in your car can travel free.
NOTE
a We also use ordinal numbers in fractions, • 193(1), and dates, • 195(2).
b George V is spoken 'George the fifth'.
c An ordinal number usually comes before a cardinal. • 143(3h)
The first four runners were well ahead of the others.


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193 Fractions, decimals and percentages
1 Fractions
a In fractions we use half, quarter or an ordinal number.
½ a/one half 1½ one and a half
2/3 two thirds 21/3 two and a third
¼ a/one quarter 63/4 six and three quarters
4/5 four fifths 15/16 fifteen sixteenths/fifteen over sixteen
b With numbers less than one, we use of before a noun phrase.
Two thirds of the field was under water.
We get a quarter of the profits.
For half, • 178 (2b).


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For half, • 178 (2b).
PAGE 247 193 Fractions, decimals and percentages 23 NUMBERS AND MEASUREMENTS
c With numbers above one, we can use a plural noun.
We waited one and a half hours.
I'd like six and three quarter metres, please.
NOTE
a With one and a half/quarter etc + noun, there is an alternative pattern.
one and a half hours/an hour and a half
one and a quarter pages/a page and a quarter
b The word directly before the noun is singular. Compare these phrases.
three quarters of a metre


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three quarters of a metre
six and three quarter metres
2 Decimals
We use a decimal point (not a comma). After the point we say each figure
separately.
0.2 '(nought) point two'
7.45 'seven point four five'
15.086 'fifteen point oh/nought eight six'
NOTE Americans say 'zero' instead of nought' or 'oh'.
3 Percentages
194 Number of times
1 We can say once, twice, three times, four times etc to say how many times
something happens.
I've done the exercise once. Isn't that enough?


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I've done the exercise once. Isn't that enough?
We usually go out about twice a week.
You've told me that same story three times now.
NOTE
Once can mean 'at a time in the past'.
We lived in a bungalow once.
2 We can use twice, three times etc to express degree, to say how many times greater
something is.
I earn double/twice what I used to/twice as much as I used to.
You're looking ten times better than you did yesterday.
PAGE 248
Save 10%! ('ten per cent'


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PAGE 248
Save 10%! ('ten per cent'
an annual return of 14.85% ('fourteen point eight five per cent')
18 per cent of the total PAGE 249 195 Times and dates
195 Times and dates
1 The time of day
4.00 four (o'clock)
8.05 five (minutes) past eight eight oh five
2.10 ten (minutes) past two two ten
5.12 twelve minutes past five five twelve
11.15 (a) quarter past eleven eleven fifteen
9.30 half past nine nine thirty
1.35 twenty-five (minutes) to two one thirty-five


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1.35 twenty-five (minutes) to two one thirty-five
10.45 (a) quarter to eleven ten forty-five
7.52 eight minutes to eight seven fifty-two
NOTE
a We use o'clock only on the hour. We can leave it out in informal English.
I usually get home at about six.
We do not use o'clock with am/pm or after the figures 00.
four o'clock/4 o'clock
NOT four o'clock pm and NOT 4.00 o'clock
b In most contexts we can use either way of saying the time. We usually prefer a phrase like


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half past five in everyday contexts and five thirty for a timetable.
I got home about half past five/about five thirty.
The train leaves at five thirty/at half past five.
c We can use am /ei'em/ meaning 'in the morning' and pm /pi:'em/ meaning 'in the
afternoon or evening'.
The match starts at 3.00 pm.
Twelve o'clock in the day is midday or noon. Twelve o'clock at night is midnight.
d We sometimes use the 24-hour clock in timetables.
The next train is the 15.30. ('fifteen thirty')


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The next train is the 15.30. ('fifteen thirty')
For times on the hour we sometimes say hundred hours.
23.00 'twenty-three (hundred) hours'
e We usually leave out minutes after 5, 10, 20 and 25, but we must use it after other numbers.
seventeen minutes past/to six NOT seventeen past/to six
f In informal speech we can leave out the hour if it is known.
It's nearly twenty past (four), already.
Using half for half past is also informal.
What time is it? ~ Half nine.


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What time is it? ~ Half nine.
g Americans also use after and of, e.g. ten past/after two, a quarter to/of eleven.
2 Dates
a When we write the date, we can use either a cardinal number such as 15 or an
ordinal number such as 15th.
15 August August 15 15th August August 15th
3 May May 3 3rd May May 3rd
In speech ordinal numbers are usual.
'the fifteenth of August' August the fifteenth'
' the third of May' 'May the third'
The date can also be spoken like this, especially in the USA.


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'August fifteenth'
NOTE
a 'August fifteen' is also possible.
b 5/3/93 means 5th March 1993 in Britain and 3rd May 1993 in the USA. 23 NUMBERS AND MEASUREMENTS PAGE 250
b We say the year like this.
1995 'nineteen ninety-five' 1763 'seventeen sixty-three'
347 'three forty-seven' 1500 'fifteen hundred'
1801 'eighteen oh one' 2000 '(the year) two thousand'
NOTE Other expressions are the 1980s ('the nineteen eighties'), and a man in his fifties.
196 Some other measurements
1 Money


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196 Some other measurements
1 Money
30p 'thirty pence' 20c 'twenty cents'
'thirty p' /pi:/ $10 'ten dollars'
£1.00 'a/one pound' $12.50 'twelve (dollars) fifty'
£2.50 'two pound(s) fifty'
'two fifty'
a Fora hundred pounds we write £100. NOT a £100
b We can talk about a fifty-pence coin or a fifty, a twenty-pound note or a twenty.
Have you got a ten pound note? Can I have the money in tens, please?
2 Length
6ft 2ins/6'2" 'six feet/foot two
inches'
100 yards 'a hundred yards'


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inches'
100 yards 'a hundred yards'
20 miles 'twenty miles'
190cm 'a hundred and ninety
centimetres'
100m 'a hundred metres'
30km 'thirty kilometres'
3 Weight
½lb 'half a pound'
2lbs 'two pounds'
4 Liquid measure
1 pint 'a pint'
6 gallons 'six gallons'
250g 'two hundred and fifty grams'
1kg 'a kilo/kilogram'
½ litre 'half a litre'
30 litres 'thirty litres'
5 Temperature
60°F 'sixty degrees (Fahrenheit)'
NOTE
We use zero for freezing point.
The temperature will fall below zero.


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The temperature will fall below zero.
15°C 'fifteen degrees (Celsius)' 24
Adjectives
197 Summary
Introduction to adjectives • 198
Adjectives are words like short, old, cheap, happy, nice, electric. Most adjectives
express quality; they tell us what something is like.
An adjective always has the same form, except for comparison (shorter, shortest).
The position of adjectives • 199
An adjective can come before a noun.
a cheap shirt
It can also be a complement after be.
This shirt is cheap.


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This shirt is cheap.
Adjectives used in one position only • 200
A few adjectives can go in one position but not in the other.
Some adjectives have different meanings in different positions.
at a certain time (= specific) Are you certain? (= sure)
Adjectives after nouns and pronouns • 201
Sometimes an adjective can go after a noun or pronoun.
shoppers eager for bargains
The order of adjectives •202
There is usually a fixed order of adjectives before a noun.
a nice old house


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a nice old house
Amusing and amused, interesting and interested • 203
Adjectives in ing express the effect something has on us.
The delay was annoying.
Adjectives in ed express how we feel.
The passengers were annoyed.
The + adjective • 204
We can use the + adjective for a social group.
There's no work for the unemployed.
NOTE
There can be a phrase or clause after some adjectives.
Adjective + prepositional phrase: I'm afraid of heights. • 236


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Adjective + to-infinitive: It's nice to have a bit of a rest. • 123
Adjective + clause: The passengers were annoyed that no information was given. • 262(6)
PAGE 251 24 ADJECTIVES PAGE 252
198 Introduction to adjectives
1 Use
PARADISE APARTMENTS
An excellent choice for an independent summer holiday, these large apartments
are along an inland waterway in a quiet residential area. The friendly resort of
Gulftown with its beautiful white sandy beach is only a short walk away.


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Restaurant and gift shop nearby.
An adjective modifies a noun. The adjectives here express physical and other
qualities (large, quiet, friendly) and the writer's opinion or attitude (excellent,
beautiful). The adjective residential classifies the area, tells us what type of
area it is.
Adjectives can also express other meanings such as origin (an American writer),
place (an inland waterway), frequency (a weekly newspaper), degree (a complete


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failure), necessity (an essential safeguard) and degrees of certainty (the probable
result).
NOTE
a We use adjectives of quality to answer the question What... like?
What's the area like? ~ Oh, it's very quiet.
Adjectives of type answer the question What kind of...?
What kind of area is it? ~ Mainly residential.
b A modifier can also be a noun, e.g. a summer holiday, a gift shop. • 147
2 Form
a An adjective always has the same form. There are no endings for number or
gender.


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gender.
an old man an old woman old people
But some adjectives take comparative and superlative endings. • 218
My wife is older than I am. This is the oldest building in the town.
b Most adjectives have no special form to show that they are adjectives. But there are
some endings used to form adjectives from other words. • 285(5)
careful planning a salty taste global warming artistic merit
199 The position of adjectives
1 An adjective phrase can have one or more adjectives.


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a large stadium a large, empty stadium
For details about the order of adjectives, • 202.
An adverb of degree can come before an adjective. • 212
a very large stadium an almost empty stadium
a very large, almost empty stadium
NOTE
a The adverb enough follows the adjective.
Will the stadium be large enough?
b We can put a phrase of measurement before some adjectives.


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The man is about forty years old and six feet tall. 2 An adjective can go before a noun or as complement after a linking verb such as
be, seem, get. These positions are called 'attributive' and 'predicative'.
Attributive: It is a large stadium. (before a noun)
Predicative: The stadium is large. (as complement)
3 These adjectives are in attributive position.
Canterbury is a lovely city. I bought a black and white sweater.
A noisy party kept us awake. It's a difficult problem.


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NOTE For the pattern so lovely a city, • 212(4).
4 These adjectives are in predicative position.
Canterbury is lovely. The sweater was black and white.
The party seemed very noisy. Things are getting so difficult.
NOTE
a An adjective can also be an object complement. • 11(1)
Why must you make things difficult? A noisy party kept us awake.
b We can use an adjective in an exclamation with how. • 20(l)
How lovely the view is! How cold your hands are!


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How lovely the view is! How cold your hands are!
An adjective can also be a one-word reply, e.g. Oh, good./Lovely.
c For The party seemed noisy and The door banged noisily, • 209(1b).
5 In these patterns we leave out words before a predicative adjective.
a I've got a friend keen on fishing. • 201
(= ... a friend who is keen on fishing.)
b Could you let me know as soon as possible?
(= ... as soon as it is possible.)
I don't want to spend any more money than necessary.


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Chris went to bed later than usual.
We can do this with a few adjectives after as or than.
c Pick the fruit when ripe.
(= ... when it is ripe.)
Work the putty in your hands until soft.
If possible, I should like some time to think it over.
Although confident of victory, we knew it would not be easy.
This pattern with a conjunction is found mainly in written English and especially
in instructions how to do something.


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in instructions how to do something.
6 In rather formal or literary English an adjective can go before or after a noun
phrase, separated from it by a comma.
Uncertain, the woman hesitated and looked round.
The weather, bright and sunny, drove us out of doors.
199 The position of adjectivesPAGE 253 24 ADJECTIVES PAGE 254
200 Adjectives used in one position only
Most adjectives can be either in attributive position (nice weather) or in


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predicative position (The weather is nice). But a few go in one position but not in
the other.
1 Attributive only
That was the main reason, NOT That reason was main.
The story is utter nonsense.
inner ring road
These adjectives are attributive but not predicative: chief, elder (= older),
eldest (= oldest), eventual, former (= earlier), indoor, inner, main,
mere (a mere child = only a child), only, outdoor, outer, principal (= main),
sheer (= complete), sole (= only), upper, utter (= complete).


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NOTE
a Little is mostly attributive.
a little/small cottage The cottage is small.
b Same cannot be predicative except with the.
Yes, I had the same experience./Yes, my experience was the same.
c A noun as modifier can only be attributive.
a tennis club a water pipe afternoon tea
But nouns saying what something is made of can go in either position.
It's a metal pipe./The pipe is metal.
2 Predicative only
The children were soon asleep. NOT the asleep children


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The manager seemed pleased with the sales figures.
One person was ill and couldn't come.
These adjectives are predicative but not attributive.
Some words with the prefix a: asleep, awake, alive, afraid, ashamed, alone, alike
Some words expressing feelings: pleased, glad, content, upset
Some words to do with health: well, fine, ill, unwell
NOTE
a Many of these adjectives can be attributive if they are modified by an adverb.
the wide awake children
an extremely pleased customer


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an extremely pleased customer
b There is sometimes a word that we can use attributively instead of one with the prefix a.
a sleeping child NOT an asleep child
a living person NOT an alive person
the frightened animal NOT the afraid animal
There are also other words expressing feelings which we can use attributively.
a satisfied/contented customer NOT a pleased customer
c Pleased, glad and upset can be attributive when not referring directly to people.


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a pleased expression the glad news an upset stomach
d For more details about well, ill etc in Britain and the USA, • 305(1). 3 Different meanings in different positions
Either position
Attributive only Attributive Predicative
a real hero real wood The wood is real.
(degree) (= not false)
a perfect idiot a perfect day The day was perfect.
(degree) (= excellent)
You poor thing! a poor result The result was poor.
(sympathy) (= not good)
poor people The people are poor.
(= having little money)


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(= having little money)
Predicative only
a certain address I'm certain.
(= specific) (= sure)
the present situation I was present.
(= now) (= here/there)
a late bus The bus was late.
(= near the end of the day) (= not on time)
the late president
(= dead)
4 A beautiful dancer
In phrases like a beautiful dancer, an interesting writer, a heavy smoker, a frequent
visitor, an old friend, the adjective usually modifies the action not the person.
Attributive Predicative


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Attributive Predicative
She's a beautiful dancer. The dancer is beautiful.
(= Her dancing is beautiful.) (= The dancer is a beautiful person.)
He was a frequent visitor.
(= His visits were frequent.)
201 Adjectives after nouns and pronouns
1 Some adjectives can have a prepositional phrase after them.
People were anxious for news. The field was full of sheep.
The adjective + prepositional phrase cannot go before the noun, but it can go
directly after it.


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directly after it.
People anxious for news kept ringing the emergency number.
We walked across a field full of sheep.
2 Sometimes the position of the adjective depends on the meaning.
The amount of money involved is quite small. (= relevant)
It's a rather involved story. (= complicated)
The person concerned is at lunch, I'm afraid. (= relevant)
A number of concerned people have joined the protest. (= worried)
PAGE 255 201 Adjectives after nouns and pronouns 24 ADJECTIVES PAGE 256


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There were ten members of staff present. (= there)
Our present problems are much worse. (= now)
Judy seems a responsible person. (= sensible)
The person responsible will be punished. (= who did it).
NOTE
a Available can come before or after a noun.
The only available tickets/ The only tickets available were very expensive.
b Possible can come after the noun when there is a superlative adjective.
We took the shortest possible route/the shortest route possible.


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c The adjective follows the noun in a few titles and idiomatic phrases.
the Director General a Sergeant Major the Princess Royal the sum total
3 Adjectives come after a compound with every, some, any and no.
Let's find somewhere quiet. You mustn't do anything silly.
202 The order of adjectives
1 Attributive adjectives
a When two or more adjectives come before a noun, there is usually a fairly
fixed order.
beautiful golden sands a nice new blue coat


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beautiful golden sands a nice new blue coat
The order depends mainly on the meaning. Look at these groups of adjectives and
other modifiers.
Opinion: nice, wonderful, excellent, lovely, terrible, awful, etc
Size: large, small, long, short, tall, etc
Quality: clear, busy, famous, important, quiet, etc
Age: old, new
Shape: round, square, fat, thin, wide, narrow, etc
Colour: red, white, blue, green, etc
Participle forms: covered, furnished, broken, running, missing, etc


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Origin: British, Italian, American, etc
Material: brick, paper, plastic, wooden, etc
Type: human, chemical, domestic, electronic, money (problems), etc
Purpose: alarm (clock), tennis (court), walking (boots), etc
Words from these groups usually come in this order:
opinion + size + quality + age + shape + colour + participle forms + origin +
material + type + purpose
an old cardboard box (age + material)
a German industrial company (origin + type)


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a German industrial company (origin + type)
two small round green discs (size + shape + colour)
a large informative street plan (size + quality + type)
a hard wooden seat (quality + material)
a new improved formula (age + participle form)
increasing financial difficulties (participle form + type)
two excellent public tennis courts (opinion + type + purpose)
NOTE
a These rules are not absolute. The order can sometimes be different. We sometimes prefer
to put a short adjective before a long one.


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to put a short adjective before a long one.
a big horrible building PAGE 257 202 The order of adjectives
b Old and young referring to people often come next to the noun.
a dignified old lady a pale young man
Here old and young are unstressed,
c Words for material are mostly nouns (brick), but some are adjectives (wooden).
Words for type can be adjectives (chemical) or nouns (money problems). Words for
purpose are nouns (alarm clock) or gerunds (walking boots).


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b In general, the adjective closest to the noun has the closest link in meaning with
the noun and expresses what is most permanent about it. For example, in the
phrase two excellent public tennis courts, the word tennis is closely linked to courts,
whereas excellent is not linked so closely. The fact that the courts are for tennis is
permanent, but their excellence is a matter of opinion.
c When two adjectives have similar meanings, the shorter one often comes first.


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a bright, cheerful smile a soft, comfortable chair
Sometimes two different orders are both possible.
a peaceful, happy place/a happy, peaceful place
2 And and but with attributive adjectives
a We can sometimes put and between two adjectives.
a soft, comfortable chair la soft and comfortable chair
But we do not normally use and between adjectives with different kinds of
meanings.
beautiful golden sands (opinion, colour)
b We use and when the adjectives refer to different parts of something.


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a black and white sweater (partly black and partly white)
We use but when the adjectives refer to two qualities in contrast.
a cheap but effective solution
3 Predicative adjectives
a The order of predicative adjectives is less fixed than the order before a noun.
Except sometimes in a literary style, we use and before the last adjective.
The chair was soft and comfortable.
Adjectives expressing an opinion often come last.
The city is old and beautiful.
NOTE


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The city is old and beautiful.
NOTE
We can use nice and lovely in this pattern with and.
The room was nice and warm. (= nicely warm)
b We can use but when two qualities are in contrast.
The solution is cheap but effective. 24 ADJECTIVES PAGE 258
203 Amusing and amused, interesting and
interested
Compare the adjectives in ing and ed.
The show made us laugh. It was very amusing.
The audience laughed. They were very amused.
I talked to a very interesting man.


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I talked to a very interesting man.
I was interested in what he was telling me.
I find these diagrams confusing.
I'm confused by these diagrams.
This weather is depressing, isn't it?
Don't you feel depressed when it rains?
Adjectives in ing express what something is like, the effect it has on us. For
example, a show can be amusing, interesting or boring. Adjectives in ed express
how we feel about something. For example, the audience can feel amused,
interested or bored.


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interested or bored.
Some pairs of adjectives like this are:
alarming/alarmed exciting/excited
amusing/amused fascinating/fascinated
annoying/annoyed puzzling/puzzled
confusing/confused relaxing/relaxed
depressing/depressed surprisingly/surprised
disappointing/disappointed tiring/tired
NOTE These words have the same form as active and passive participles. • 137
204 The + adjective
1 Social groups
a We can use the + adjective to refer to some groups of people in society.


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In the England of 1900 little was done to help the poor. (= poor people)
Who looks after the old and the sick? (= old people and sick people)
The poor means 'poor people in general'. It cannot refer to just one person or to a
small group. Here it means 'poor people in England in 1900'. The poor is more
impersonal than poor people.
The + adjective takes a plural verb.
The old are greatly respected.
b Here are some examples of adjectives used in this way.


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Social/Economic: the rich, the poor, the strong, the weak, the hungry,
the (under)privileged, the disadvantaged, the unemployed, the homeless
Physical/Health: the blind, the deaf, the sick, the disabled, the handicapped,
the living, the dead
Age: the young, the middle-aged, the elderly, the old 204 The + adjective
The adjective can be modified by an adverb.
the very rich the severely disabled
Some adjectives normally take an adverb.
the more/less fortunate the mentally ill
NOTE


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the more/less fortunate the mentally ill
NOTE
a In a few contexts, the + adjective can mean a specific group rather than people in general.
The injured were taken to hospital.
b A few adjectives can come after a/an to mean a specific person.
Now a superstar, she was an unknown only two years ago.
c There are a few adjectives that we can use as nouns, such as colour words. They take s in
the plural.
a black (= a black person) the Greens (= supporters of the green movement)


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d For the French, •288.
2 Abstract qualities
a We can use some adjectives after the to refer to things in general which have an
abstract quality.
There are a lot of books on the supernatural.
The human race has a great thirst for the unknown.
The supernatural means 'supernatural happenings in general'. Other examples:
the mysterious, the unexplained, the absurd, the ordinary, the old, the new.
The noun phrase takes a singular verb.
The new drives out the old.


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The new drives out the old.
b A few adjectives can have a more specific meaning.
The unexpected happened. (= something that was unexpected)
Have you heard the latest? (= the latest news)
Also: fear the worst, hope for the best, in the dark
c We use the+ adjective + thing to talk about a particular quality or aspect of a
situation. This usage is rather informal.
It was an amusing sight, but the annoying thing (about it) was that I didn't have
my camera with me.
We cannot leave out thing here.


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We cannot leave out thing here.
PAGE 259 PAGE 260
25Adverbials
205 Summary
Introduction to adverbials • 206
An adverbial can be an adverb phrase, prepositional phrase or noun phrase.
Luckily the money was on my desk when I arrived this morning.
Adverb forms • 207
Many adverbs end in ly: quietly, finally, certainly. There are some pairs of adverbs
like hard and hardly with different meanings.
The position of adverbials • 208
Some adverbials come next to the word or phrase they modify.


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those people over there really nice
Some adverbials modify a verb or a whole clause. They come in front, mid or end
position.
Front Mid End
Today the train actually left on time.
Types of adverbial
Adverbs of manner • 209
slowly, with a smile (how?)
Place and time • 210
here, at the post office (where?)
yesterday, next week (when?)
ages, for three weeks (how long?)
Adverbs of frequency • 211
often, every week (how often?)
Adverbs of degree • 212
very, a bit (how?)
Focus and viewpoint • 213


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very, a bit (how?)
Focus and viewpoint • 213
only, especially
medically, from a political point of view
Truth adverbs • 214
probably, on the whole Comment adverbs • 215
luckily, to our amusement
Linking adverbs • 216
also, on the other hand
NOTE
For phrasal verbs, e.g. Switch the light off, • 230.
For means, e.g. I cut it with a knife, • 228(5).
For function/role, e.g. I use this room as my office, • 228(6).
For where, when, why and how in questions, • 27, and as relative adverbs, • 279.


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206 Introduction to adverbials
In this real conversation Liz is telling a friend how she and Tony were stopped by
the police.
STOPPED BY THE POLICE
Liz: It was at about eleven o'clock at night, and at that sort of time the police
are always looking for people who've been drinking. And I can remember very
well that we were in a hurry to get home because Catherine was with a
babysitter, but she wasn't at home, she was in someone else's house, and we


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wanted to get back before they were ready to go to bed. Do you remember?
Tony: We'd been to the cinema.
Liz: Mhm. And I can remember...
Tony: Hadn't had a drink for days.
Liz: No. I can remember distinctly that you were going very very slowly as you
saw the police car in front of you, and then you said in a very impatient
fashion, 'Oh, they're doing this on purpose. They're going very slowly. I will
overtake them.' You overtook them, and sure enough they thought that that


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was worth stopping you for. So they did.
Tony: So they got out, and they inspected the car thoroughly in a very officious
manner.
(from M. Underwood and P. Barr Listeners)
1 An adverbial can have these forms.
Adverb phrase: You were going very slowly.
We wanted to get back.
Prepositional phrase: Catherine wasn't at home.
You saw the police car in front of you.
Noun phrase: We wanted to get home.
It happened last week.
2 Sometimes an adverbial is necessary to complete a sentence.


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Catherine was with a babysitter. We'd been to the cinema.
But very often the adverbial is an extra element.
I can remember very well. You saw the police car in front of you.
For details, • 12.
Putting in an extra adverbial adds something to the meaning. For example, it can
tell us how, when or where something happened.
PAGE 261 206 Introduction to adverbials 3 An adverbial can modify different parts of the sentence.
The car in front of us was a police car.
You were getting really impatient.


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You were getting really impatient.
They were going very slowly.
They inspected the car thoroughly.
Then you decided to overtake.
Here the adverbials add information about the noun car, the adjective impatient,
the adverb slowly, the action inspected the car and the clause you decided.
207 Adverb forms
1 Some adverbs are unrelated to other words, e.g. always, soon, very, perhaps.
But many adverbs are formed from an adjective + ly, e.g. quick quickly,
certain certainly.
NOTE


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certain certainly.
NOTE
There are some spelling rules for adverbs in ly.
Y changing to i: easy easily • 294
Adjectives ending in consonant + le: probable probably • 292(5)
Adjectives ending in ic: magic magically • 292(5)
2 We cannot add ly to an adjective which already ends in ly. Instead we can either
use a prepositional phrase with manner/way/fashion, or we can use another
adverb.
We received a friendly greeting. They greeted us in a friendly manner.
NOT friendlily


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NOT friendlily
That isn't very likely. That probably won't happen.
Some adjectives in ly are friendly, lively, lovely, silly, ugly, cowardly, lonely, costly,
likely.
NOTE
Some adjectives ending in ed have no adverb form.
The woman stared in astonishment, NOT astonishedly
But those ending in ted can take an ly ending.
The crowd shouted excitedly.
3 Some adverbs have the same form as adjectives.
Adjective Adverb
Louise caught the fast train. The train was going quite fast.


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We didn't have a long wait. We didn't have to wait long.
I had an early night. I went to bed early.
Other adverbs like this are walk straight, sit still and bend low. For hard, hardly,
late, lately etc, • (5).
4 Sometimes the adverb can be with or without ly. It is more informal to leave out ly.
You can buy cassettes cheap/cheaply in the market.
Do you have to talk so loud/loudly?
Get there as quick/quickly as you can.
Go slow/slowly here.


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Go slow/slowly here.
Cheap(ly), loud(ly), quick(ly) and slow(ly) are the most common. Others are
direct(ly), tight(ly) and fair(ly). For American usage, • 305(2).
25 ADVERBIALS PAGE 262 NOTE
a We use the form without ly only in common expressions, e.g. talk so loud, go slow,
fly direct, play fair. We use ly with longer or less common expressions.
Do you have to rustle that newspaper so loudly? We need to take action quickly.


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b Right and wrong are adverbs of manner, but rightly and wrongly express a comment.
I'll try to do it right this time.
Helen decided rightly to call the police.
c First and last are both adjectives and adverbs.
Karen took first place/came first in the race.
Firstly and lastly are linking adverbs.
First/Firstly, I'd like to thank you all for coming.
5 There are some pairs such as hard and hardly which have different meanings.
You've all worked hard. I've got hardly any money.


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(hardly any = almost no)
There's a bank quite near. We've nearly finished. (= almost)
I often stay up late. I've been unwell lately. (= recently)
The plane flew high above The theory is highly controversial. (= very)
the clouds.
Submarines can go very deep. Mike feels very deeply about this.
Airline staff travel free. The prisoners can move around freely.
(= without paying) (= uncontrolled)
This ear hurts the most. We mostly stay in. (= usually)


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6 Hourly, daily etc are formed from hour, day, week, month and year. They are both
adjectives and adverbs.
It's a monthly magazine. It comes out monthly.
7 Good is an adjective, and well is its adverb.
Roger is a good singer, isn't he?
Roger sings well, doesn't he? NOT He sings good.
But well is also an adjective meaning 'in good health'.
I was ill, but I'm well/I'm all right now.
How are you? ~ Very well,IFine, thank you.


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How are you? ~ Very well,IFine, thank you.
NOTE We use well in expressions such as well organized, well deserved and well known.
208 The position of adverbials
The position of an adverbial depends on what it modifies. It can modify a word or
phrase or a whole clause. Its position also depends on what type of adverbial it is
and whether it is a single word or a phrase.
1 Modifying a noun, adjective or adverb
a An adverbial which modifies a noun usually goes after it.


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The shop on the corner is closed.
Who's the girl with short hair?
Those people outside are getting wet.
For more examples, • 148.
b An adverb which modifies an adjective or adverb usually goes before it. • 212
That's very kind of you. We heard the signal fairly clearly.
PAGE 263 208 The position of adverbials 25 ADVERBIALS
2 Front position, mid position and end position
When an adverbial modifies a verb or a whole clause, there are three main places
we can put it.
Front: Really, I can't say.


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we can put it.
Front: Really, I can't say.
Mid: I can't really say.
End: I can't say, really.
Sometimes we can also put an adverbial after the subject. • (4) Note c
I really can't say.
3 Front position
Sure enough, the police car stopped us.
Just hold on a moment.
In the end our efforts will surely meet with success.
Front position is at the beginning of a clause. Most types of adverbial can go here.
We often put an adverbial in front position when it relates to what has gone before.


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You were getting impatient. And then you decided to overtake.
For an example text, • 49(1).
NOTE
A prepositional phrase can sometimes be the subject.
Along that path is the quickest way. After lunch is usually a quiet time.
For there + be, • 50.
4 Mid position
The police are always looking for people at this time.
This stereo is definitely faulty.
I usually enjoy maths lessons.
Mid position is after an auxiliary verb, after the ordinary verb be on its own, or
before a simple-tense verb.


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before a simple-tense verb.
(Auxiliary)
Subject (be on its own) Adverb (Verb)
It doesn't
We 've
The news will
You were
You
I
often rain in the Sahara.
just booked our tickets.
soon be out of date.
probably right.
probably made the right decision.
always get the worst jobs.
Most types of short adverbial can go here, especially adverbs of frequency (often),
but not phrases.
NOT I every time get the worst jobs.
a In a question there is inversion of subject and auxiliary.


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Have you just booked your tickets? Why do I always get the worst jobs?
b If there are two auxiliaries, then mid position is usually after the first one.
We've just been queuing for tickets. The shops will soon be closing.
But adverbs of manner and some adverbs of degree go after the second auxiliary.
We've been patiently queuing for tickets. You could have completely spoilt everything.
PAGE 264 c We sometimes put an adverb after the subject and before the verb phrase. This happens


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especially with a negative (probably doesn't) or when there is stress (really 'are).
It probably doesn't matter very much.
You really are serious, aren't you?
An adverb also goes before have to, used to and ought to.
I never have to wait long for a bus.
Sometimes the position can affect the meaning. Compare these sentences.
They deliberately didn't leave the heating on. (They left it off on purpose.)
They didn't deliberately leave the heating on. (They left it on by mistake.)
5 End position


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5 End position
a I hadn't had a drink for days.
The police were driving very slowly.
They're doing this on purpose.
Most types of adverbial can come here, especially prepositional phrases.
b If there is an object, then the adverbial usually goes after it.
I wrapped the parcel carefully, NOT I wrapped carefully the parcel.
We'll finish the job next week, NOT We'll finish next week the job.
But a short adverbial can go before a long object.
I wrapped carefully all the glasses and ornaments.


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Here the adverb of manner can also go in mid position.
I carefully wrapped all the glasses and ornaments.
c We often put an adverbial in end position when it is new and important
information.
There was a police car in front of us. It was going very slowly.
NOTE
When there are two clauses, the position of the adverb can affect the meaning.
They agreed immediately that the goods would be replaced. (an immediate agreement)


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They agreed that the goods would be replaced immediately. (an immediate replacement)
6 Order in end position
a Sometimes there is more than one adverbial in end position. Usually a shorter
adverbial goes before a longer one.
Sam waited impatiently outside the post office.
We sat indoors most of the afternoon.
They inspected the car thoroughly in a very officious manner.
b When there is a close link in meaning between a verb and adverbial, then the


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adverbial goes directly after the verb. For example, we usually put an adverbial of
place next to go, come etc.
I go to work by bus. Charles came home late.
c Phrases of time and place can often go in either order.
There was an accident last night on the by-pass.
There was an accident on the by-pass last night.
NOTE
A smaller place usually comes before a larger one.
They live in a bungalow near Coventry.
PAGE 265 208 The position of adverbials 25 ADVERBIALS PAGE 266


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Manner, time and place usually come before frequency.
I can find my way around quite easily, usually.
Sarah gets up early occasionally.
In more careful English, the adverb of frequency would come in mid position.
I can usually find my way around quite easily.
When a truth, comment or linking adverb comes in end position, it is usually last, a
kind of afterthought.
Phil's had to stay late at work, perhaps.
Someone handed the money in at the police station, incredibly.


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Wendy is a member. She doesn't go to the club very often, however.
209 Adverbs of manner
1 Adjectives and adverbs
a Look at these examples.
Adjective Adverb
Kevin had a quick snack. He ate quickly.
Kate is fluent in Russian. She speaks Russian fluently.
Think of a sensible reply. Try to reply sensibly.
An adjective modifies a noun (snack). An adverb of manner modifies a verb (ate).
Most adverbs of manner are formed from an adjective + ly. For adverbs without ly,
• 207(3-4).


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• 207(3-4).
b Compare the different types of verb.
Linking verb + adjective Action verb + adverb
The inspector was polite. She listened politely. NOT She listened polite.
Linking verbs are be, seem, become, look, feel etc, • 9. Some verbs can be either
linking verbs or action verbs.
Linking verb + adjective Action verb + adverb
The speaker looked nervous. He looked nervously round the room.
The milk smelled funny. Dave smelled the milk suspiciously.


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The atmosphere grew tense. The plants grew rapidly.
2 Prepositional phrases
We can often use a prepositional phrase to express manner.
Handle carefully/with care. They were doing it deliberately/on purpose.
They inspected the car officiously/in an officious manner.
NOTE
We can often use an adjective or adverb in the prepositional phrase.
It must be handled with great care.
They inspected the car in an extremely officious manner. 210 Place and time
3 Position


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3 Position
a We put an adverbial of manner mainly in end position, • 208(5). These are real
examples from stories.
'I didn't know whether to tell you or not,' she said anxiously.
The sun still shone brightly on the quiet street.
We continued our labours in silence.
NOTE
An adverb of manner can also modify an adjective.
The team were quietly confident. The dog lay peacefully asleep.
b The adverbial can sometimes come in front position for emphasis. • 49(1c)


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Without another word, he walked slowly away up the strip.
210 Place and time
1 Position
a Adverbials of place and time often go in end position.
The match will be played at Villa Park.
The President made the comment to reporters yesterday.
A Norwegian ferry was being repaired last night after running aground in the
Thames.
The office is closed for two weeks.
For more than one adverbial in end position, • 208(6).
b They can also go in front position.


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b They can also go in front position.
I've got two meetings tomorrow. And on Thursday I have to go to London.
For details and an example text, •49(1).
c Some short adverbials of time can go in mid position.
I've just seen Debbie. We'll soon be home.
These include now, then, just (= a short time ago), recently, soon, at once,
immediately, finally, since, already, still and no longer.
d An adverbial of place or time can modify a noun.
The radiator in the hall is leaking.


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The radiator in the hall is leaking.
Exports last year broke all records.
2 Yet, still and already
a We use yet for something that is expected.
Have you replied to the letter yet? ~ No, not yet.
I got up late. I haven't had breakfast yet.
Yet comes at the end of a question or negative statement.
NOTE
We can use yet in mid position, but it is a little formal.
We have not yet reached a decision on the matter.
PAGE 267 25 ADVERBIALS PAGE 268


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PAGE 267 25 ADVERBIALS PAGE 268
b We use still for something going on longer than expected. In positive statements
and questions it goes in mid position.
I got up late. I'm still having breakfast.
Does Carl still ride that old motor-bike he had at college?
In negative statements still comes after the subject.
The child still hasn't learnt to read.
This is more emphatic than The child hasn't learnt to read yet.
NOTE


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NOTE
Still can go after a negative auxiliary when we express surprise. Compare these sentences.
I still don't feel well. (= I still feel ill.)
You don't still feel sick, do you? (= I am surprised that you still feel sick.)
c We use already for something happening sooner than expected. We use it mainly
in mid position in positive statements and questions.
I got up early. I've already had breakfast.
Have you already replied to the letter? ~ Yes, I have. ~ That was quick. It only
came yesterday.


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came yesterday.
Already in end position has more emphasis.
Good heavens! It's lunch time already.
Have you typed the whole report already?
NOTE
Already can go after the subject and before a stressed auxiliary.
I already 'have typed the report, I tell you.
3 No longer, any more and any longer
a We use no longer for something coming to an end. It goes in mid position.
Mrs Hicks no longer works at the town hall.
No longer is a little formal. In informal speech we use any more. It goes in end


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position in a negative sentence.
Barbara doesn't work at the town hall any more.
b We often use any longer in a negative sentence for something that is about to end.
I'm not going to wait any longer.
4 Long and far
a We normally use the adverbs long and far only in questions and negative
statements.
Have you been waiting long? It isn't far from here to the motorway.
In positive statements we use a long time/way.
I had to wait a long time/ wait ages. It's a long way to Vladivostok.


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b But we use long and far after too, so and as, and with enough.
The speech went on too long.
I'm annoyed because I've had to wait so long/such a long time.
Let's go back now. We've walked far enough.
NOTE
We can also use the comparative and superlative forms in positive statements.
The journey takes longer in the rush hour. You threw the ball furthest. 211 Adverbs of frequency
5 After
We do not often use after on its own as an adverb.


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We all went to the cinema and then afterwards to a pizza restaurant.
The talk lasted half an hour. Then/After that there was a discussion.
But we can say the day/week after.
I sent the form off, and I got a reply the week after/a week later.
211 Adverbs of frequency
1 An adverb of frequency usually goes in mid position.
The bus doesn't usually stop here. I can never open these packets.
It's always cold up here. I often get up in the night.


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Some adverbs of frequency are always; normally, generally, usually; often,
frequently; sometimes, occasionally; seldom, rarely; never.
NOTE
a The adverb can sometimes go after the subject and before a negative auxiliary. Compare
these sentences.
I don't often have breakfast. (= I seldom have breakfast.)
I often don't have breakfast. (= I often go without breakfast.)
Sometimes goes before a negative auxiliary.
You sometimes can't get a table here.


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You sometimes can't get a table here.
b Seldom and rarely are a little formal. In informal speech we use not often.
I don't often play cards.
c Never is a negative word. • 17(4)
I've never felt so embarrassed in my life. Will you never learn?
We use ever mainly in questions.
Have you ever done any ballroom dancing? ~ No, never.
But we can also use ever with negative words.
I haven't ever felt so embarrassed.
You hardly ever buy me flowers.
Ever can add emphasis to the negative.


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Ever can add emphasis to the negative.
No one ever said that to me before.
Nothing ever happens in this place.
I never ever want to see that awful man again.
We can also use ever in conditions and comparisons.
If you ever feel like a chat, just drop in.
James swam faster than he'd ever done before.
If ever can go before the subject.
If ever you feel like a chat, just drop in.
We do not normally use ever in positive statements.
I always have lots to do. NOT I ever have lots to do.


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2 Normally, generally, usually, frequently, sometimes and occasionally also go in
front or end position.
Normally I tip taxi-drivers. My sister comes to see me sometimes.
Often, seldom and rarely can go in end position, especially with e.g. very or quite.
Doctors get called out at night quite often.
A lot (= often) goes in end position.
We go out a lot at weekends.
NOTE
a Always, never and often in front position are emphatic.
Always the ghost appeared at the same time.


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Always the ghost appeared at the same time.
We can use always and never in instructions.
Never try to adjust the machine while it is switched on.
b For never, seldom and rarely with inversion, • 17(6c).
PAGE 269 25 ADVERBIALS
3 We can also use a phrase with every, most or some to express frequency.
These phrases can go in front or end position.
Every summer we all go sailing together.
The dog has to have a walk every day.
The postman calls most days.


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The postman calls most days.
Some evenings we don't have the television on at all.
We can also use once, twice, three times etc.
The committee meets once a month.
Two tablets to be taken three times a day.
Paul has been married several times.
NOTE
Compare often and several times.
We've often been skiing. (= many times over a long period)
We've been skiing several times. (= perhaps four or five times)
4 The adverbs daily (= every day), weekly etc go in end position.


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Are you paid weekly or monthly?
212 Adverbs of degree
1 Modifying an adjective or adverb
a We can use an adverb of degree before some adjectives and adverbs.
+ Adjective: It's very cold. I'm so tired.
You're absolutely right. These are rather expensive.
We're a bit busy today. It wasn't at all interesting.
+ Adverb: I come here quite often. I saw her fairly recently.
We hardly ever go out. He agreed somewhat reluctantly.
Here are some common adverbs of degree.


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Here are some common adverbs of degree.
Full degree: completely, totally, absolutely, entirely, quite
Large degree: very, extremely, really, awfully, terribly
Medium degree: rather, fairly, quite, pretty, somewhat
Small degree: a little, a bit, slightly
Negative: hardly, scarcely • 17(4), at all
Others: so, as; too; more, most, less, least • 220
We can also use a fraction or percentage.
The bottle is only half full.
The forecast was eighty per cent accurate.
NOTE


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The forecast was eighty per cent accurate.
NOTE
a We use completely, totally, absolutely etc with words expressing a full or large degree.
This tin opener is completely useless. (useless = absolutely no use)
We are absolutely delighted at the news. (delighted = very pleased)
We do not normally use very or extremely with these words.
It's very unsatisfactory. NOT It's very useless.
We were extremely pleased. NOT We were extremely delighted:


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Some words that do not normally take very or extremely are: amazed, amazing, appalled,
appalling, awful, complete, delighted, dreadful, essential, false, fascinated, horrible, ideal,
impossible, incredible, magnificent, marvellous, perfect, terrible, terrific, useless.
b After a phrase with very we can put indeed for extra emphasis.
It's very cold indeed today.
PAGE 270 PAGE 271 212 Adverbs of degree
c We often use very with a negative.
These photos aren't very good.


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These photos aren't very good.
This is more usual than These photos aren't good or These photos are bad.
d Instead of really we can use real in informal speech, especially in American English.
It's real cold today.
e Pretty and a bit are informal.
f Somewhat, a little, a bit and slightly have an unfavourable sense.
The carriage was somewhat crowded.
I felt a bit sick.
But we can use them with comparatives in a favourable sense.
I felt a bit better/somewhat more cheerful.


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I felt a bit better/somewhat more cheerful.
g At all can also go in end position.
It wasn't interesting at all.
For phrases used to emphasize a negative, • 17(6b).
h In informal English we can use that instead of so in a negative sentence.
No, they don't own an aeroplane. They aren't that rich.
i We can use much, far or rather to modify too.
This coat is much too big for me.
j For twice/three times as expensive, • 194(2).
b Enough comes after the adjective or adverb it modifies.


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Are you warm enough?
Steve didn't react quickly enough.
Compare too and enough.
It's too small (for me)./It isn't big enough (for me).
NOTE
Compare enough as adverb and as quantifier.
I'm not rich enough./I haven't enough money.
2 Modifying a comparative adjective or adverb
This new sofa is much nicer than the old one. NOT very nicer
Come on. Try a bit harder.
The alternative route was no quicker.
Before a comparative we can use (very) much, a lot; rather, somewhat; a little, a bit,


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slightly; three times etc.
3 Modifying a superlative
It was just about the nicest holiday I could have imagined.
We offer easily the best value / by far the best value.
NOTE
The adverb can sometimes come after the phrase with a superlative.
We offer the best value by far.
4 So/such, quite and too
We can use most adverbs of degree with an attributive adjective.
that very tall girl my fairly low score a rather nice restaurant
But after a/an we do not normally use so or quite.


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She's such a tall girl. NOT a so tall girl
It's quite an old book. (a quite old book is less usual) 25 ADVERBIALS PAGE 272
Too or as and the adjective go before a/an.
You've cut too short a piece, NOT a too short piece
I know just as quick a way. NOT a just as quick way
We can use so in the same way, although the pattern with such is more usual.
I don't like to criticize so famous an artist.
I don't like to criticize such a famous artist.
NOTE
a We can use rather in both patterns.


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NOTE
a We can use rather in both patterns.
We had a rather long wait/rather a long wait.
b We can use such and rather + a/an + noun without an adjective.
That man is such an idiot. It's rather a pity you won't be here.
We can also use a bit of.
Sorry. The flat's in a bit of a mess.
Quite in this pattern means something large or special.
We had quite a wait. That was quite a party.
The meaning is the same as That was some party. • 179(5c)
5 Quite and rather
a Stress


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5 Quite and rather
a Stress
In these examples with quite, the adjective is stressed.
It's quite 'warm today. (It's warmer than expected.)
Your friends are quite 'rich. (They've got a lot of money.)
If we stress quite, we limit the force of the adjective.
It's 'quite warm. (but not as warm as expected)
Things went 'quite well. (but not as well as I'd hoped)
NOTE We do not stress rather.
b Quite warm/rather cold
When we make a favourable comment, we usually prefer quite to rather. Quite is


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unstressed.
It's quite pleasant here. It was quite a good party.
In unfavourable comments, we usually prefer rather, but quite is possible.
It's rather/quite depressing here. It was rather/quite a dull party.
It was rather/quite inconvenient having to change trains twice.
Rather in a favourable comment often means 'to a surprising or unusual degree'.
I expected the party to he dull, but it was actually rather good.
The test paper was rather easy. (It isn't usually so easy.)


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c Two meanings of quite
Quite + adjective can express a medium degree or a full degree, depending on the
kind of adjective.
Medium degree: 'fairly' Full degree: 'completely'
The task is quite difficult. The task is quite impossible.
The film was quite good. The film was quite brilliant.
I feel quite tired. I feel quite exhausted. With adjectives like difficult, we can use different degrees: fairly difficult, a bit


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difficult, very difficult, more difficult etc. Adjectives like impossible and brilliant
already mean a full or large degree. An impossible task is completely out of the
question; a brilliant film is very good.
Quite means 'completely' before these adjectives:
absurd brilliant disgusting fascinated perfect
alone certain dreadful fascinating ridiculous
amazed dead empty horrible right
amazing delicious extraordinary impossible sure
appalled determined exhausted incredible true


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appalled determined exhausted incredible true
appalling different exhausting magnificent useless
awful disgusted false marvellous wrong
NOTE
a We can sometimes use fairly etc with some of the adjectives listed above, especially in
informal speech.
The task is fairly impossible. I feel pretty exhausted.
But quite impossible/exhausted etc always means 'completely'.
b Not quite means 'not completely'.
What you said is not quite true. (= almost true)
c Quite + like/enjoy/want = fairly.


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c Quite + like/enjoy/want = fairly.
I quite enjoyed the film. It was quite good.
Quite + agree/understand = completely.
I quite agree. You're quite right.
6 Modifying a preposition
Some adverbs of degree can modify a preposition.
The offices are right in the centre of town.
I'm not very up to date, I'm afraid.
For more examples, • 224(3).
7 Modifying a verb
a We can use an adverb of degree to modify a verb.
I'm really enjoying myself.
We were rather hoping to have a look round.


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We were rather hoping to have a look round.
The doorman absolutely refused to let us in.
The suitcase was so heavy I could hardly lift it.
In mid position we can use absolutely, completely, totally; just, really; almost,
nearly; hardly, scarcely; quite, rather.
Absolutely, completely, totally and rather can also go in end position.
I completely forgot the time./I forgot the time completely.
NOTE
The adverb goes before a stressed auxiliary • 208(4) Note c, and also sometimes before a


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negative auxiliary.
I just don't know what to do. The driver almost didn't see the red light.
b We often use an adverb of degree before a passive participle.
The car was badly damaged in the accident.
Our schedule was completely disrupted by the changes.
PAGE 273 212 Adverbs of degree 25 ADVERBIALS PAGE 274
c Some adverbs go in end position when they modify a verb.
During the speech my attention wandered a lot.
This tooth aches terribly.


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This tooth aches terribly.
These are a lot, very much; a bit, a little, slightly; somewhat; terribly, awfully; more,
(the) most.
d We can use much or very much in a negative sentence or question, but we cannot
use much on its own in a positive statement.
Negative: I don't like this sweater much/very much.
Positive: I like this sweater very much. NOT I like this sweater much.
8 Modifying a quantifier
We can use these patterns.
a very/so/too + many/much/few/little
There were so many people there.


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There were so many people there.
b such/rather/quite + a lot (of)
There were such a lot of people there.
We've had rather a lot of complaints.
c quite + a few/a bit (of)
We've had quite a few complaints.
d almost/nearly + all/every
Almost all the pudding had been eaten.
e hardly any
There was hardly any pudding left.
f a lot/much/a bit/a little/any/no + more/less
Would you like a bit more pudding?
NOTE
We can use much, far or rather to modify too.
You've put far too much salt in.


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You've put far too much salt in.
213 Focus and viewpoint
1 Focus adverbials
We sometimes use an adverb to focus on a particular word or phrase.
Emily works every day, even on Sundays.
I don't like alcohol, especially beer.
NOTE
Compare even and also.
Everyone laughed, even the teacher.
(Everyone includes the teacher.)
We've invited the whole class, and also the teacher.
(The whole class does not include the teacher.) 214 Truth adverbs
2 Only and even


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2 Only and even
a In rather formal or careful English we put only and even before the word or phrase
we want to focus on.
I knew only one of the other guests.
Alan always wears shorts. He wears them even in winter.
But in informal English only and even can be in mid position.
I only knew one of the other guests.
Alan even wears shorts in winter.
We stress the word we want to focus on, e.g. one, winter.
NOTE
a Only can be an adjective.
Saturday is the only day I can go shopping.


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Saturday is the only day I can go shopping.
b We can use the adverb just (= only).
I knew just one of the other guests.
b When we focus on the subject, we put only and even before it.
Only you would do a silly thing like that. (No one else would.)
Even the experts don't know the answer.
NOTE For Only then did I realize, • 17(6c).
c In official written English, e.g. on notices, only comes after the word or phrase it
focusses on.
Waiting limited to 30 minutes only
3 Viewpoint adverbials


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3 Viewpoint adverbials
These express the idea that we are looking at a situation from a particular aspect or
point of view.
Financially, things are a bit difficult at the moment.
Can you manage transport-wise, or do you need a lift?
The building is magnificent from an architectural point of view, but it's
hell to work in.
As far as insurance is concerned, we can fix that up for you.
NOTE
A viewpoint adverb can also modify an adjective.


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A viewpoint adverb can also modify an adjective.
The scheme is economically beneficial but environmentally disastrous.
214 Truth adverbs
1 A truth adverb expresses what the speaker knows about the truth of a statement:
how likely it is to be true, or to what degree it is true.
Perhaps/Maybe Mandy has missed the bus.
You've certainly/undoubtedly made a good start.
I agree with you basically. Service isn't included, presumably.
Clearly the matter is urgent. The boxer allegedly took drugs.


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PAGE 275 Most of these adverbs can go in front, mid or end position. Certainly, definitely and
probably usually go in mid position. But in a negative sentence we put a truth
adverb after the subject rather than after the auxiliary.
You certainly haven't wasted any time.
Service presumably isn't included.
NOTE For Mandy might have missed the bus, • 97.
2 We can also use a prepositional phrase.
The whole thing is ridiculous in my opinion.
Of course I'll pay you back.


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Of course I'll pay you back.
We get on quite well together on the whole.
3 We can also use a clause with I.
I think the whole thing is ridiculous.
Someone's fused the lights, I expect.
I'm sure you've made a mistake.
215 Comment adverbs
1 We use this kind of adverb to make a comment on what we are saying
Luckily no one was killed. (= It was lucky that no one was killed.)
The newspaper wasn't interested in the story, surprisingly.
I'm afraid/Unfortunately we didn't win anything.


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I'm afraid/Unfortunately we didn't win anything.
2 We can also use an adverb to comment on someone's behaviour.
Dick wisely didn't interfere. (= It was wise of Dick not to interfere.)
Compare the adverbs of comment and manner.
I stupidly left the car unlocked. (= It was stupid of me.)
The man stared stupidly. (= in a stupid manner)
3 We can use a phrase with to for someone's feelings about something.
To my surprise, the newspaper wasn't interested in the story.


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To Phil's delight, his plan proved successful.
4 We can comment on why we are saying something.
Honestly,/To be honest, I think you're making the wrong decision.
216 Linking adverbs
A linking adverb relates to the previous clause or sentence. It most often goes in
front position, but it can go in mid or end position. Here are some real examples.
But the baby does not just grow bigger and heavier. Its shape and body
proportions also change as it grows up.


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proportions also change as it grows up.
When Beethoven was fourteen, he was forced to give lessons to support his
parents. However, he still found time to take a few violin lessons, and he went on
composing.
If you pay the bill in full within 25 days you won't be charged interest. Otherwise
you are charged interest on any balance outstanding.
25 ADVERBIALS PAGE 276 216 linking adverbs
Some other linking adverbs are as well, too, in addition, furthermore, • 244;


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nevertheless, on the other hand, • 246; therefore, consequently, as a result, • 247;
likewise; instead. They have similar meanings to conjunctions such as and, but, so
and if.
2 Here are some other ways of relating one clause or sentence to another.
Ordering: There are two reasons. Firstly, I'm not interested, and
secondly, I haven't got the time.
In conclusion, I'd like to say a few words about future
prospects.
The matter is under consideration. In other words,
they're thinking about it.


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they're thinking about it.
I'll see you tomorrow then. Or rather on Monday.
We've got lots of things we could sell. There's the car,
for example.
I think I'll have the sausages. ~ Talking of sausages,
did you know there's a barbecue on Saturday?
I had a lovely lunch. ~ Good. By the way, where did
you put that file?
I think I'd better be going. It's past midnight, after all.
I don't know whether we did the right thing. Anyway,
it doesn't matter now.


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it doesn't matter now.
The government sold the telephone service to private
investors. Gas and electricity were privatized in the
same way.
Summing up:
Rephrasing:
Correcting:
Giving examples:
Picking up a topic:
Changing the subject:
Supporting a statement:
Dismissing something:
Comparing:
PAGE 277 PAGE 278
26
Comparison
217 Summary
The comparative and superlative of adjectives • 218
Adjectives can have a comparative form (newer, more modern), and a superlative


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form (newest, most modern). Short adjectives take er/est, and long ones take
more/most.
The comparative and superlative of adverbs • 219
Adverbs can have a comparative form (faster, more rapidly) and a superlative
form (fastest, most rapidly).
More, most, less, least, fewer and fewest • 220
We can use more, most, less etc to compare quantities.
There's more traffic on a weekday.
Patterns expressing a comparison •221
We use these patterns to make comparisons.


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We use these patterns to make comparisons.
The new system is more complicated than the old one.
. Nothing is ever as simple as it seems.
Greenland is the largest island in the world.
It was the most embarrassing thing that ever happened to me.
Special patterns with the comparative • 222
And we can use these special patterns.
The people in the queue were getting more and more impatient.
The longer people have to wait, the more impatient they get.
218 The comparative and superlative of adjectives


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218 The comparative and superlative of adjectives
GOLD AND COPPER
Gold is much softer than copper, so it is easier to hammer into shape. It is not very
strong. A gold knife might look very fine but would not have been much use for
skinning a bear, so from early times gold became the metal for ornaments. Copper
is much harder; it would have been much more difficult for early man to shape,
but the finished article was more durable.
(from L. Aitchison The Story of Metals) MIDTOWN MANHATTAN


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Midtown Manhattan, which ranges roughly from 34th to 59th Streets and river to
river, is a center of superlatives. The biggest buildings, best restaurants, most art
galleries, brightest lights, greatest concentration of big business, largest complex
of theaters and concert houses, best bargain basements, most exclusive couture
houses, and the most specialized services are all here.
(from Fodor's Budget Travel in America)
1 Use
We use these forms to compare the same quality of different things.


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Gold is softer than copper.
Copper is more durable.
New York is the biggest city in the USA.
The most exclusive fashion stores are here.
We can compare, for example, the softness of gold and copper, or the size of New
York compared to other cities.
NOTE
a For patterns such as softer than copper, the biggest in the USA, •221.
b The traditional rule is that we use a comparative (softer, more durable) for two items, and


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we use the superlative (biggest, most exclusive) for more than two. But in informal English
we often use the superlative to refer to one of only two items.
Which of these two photos is better/best?
2 Form
a These are the regular forms.
Comparative Superlative
Short adjective soft softer softest
Long adjective exclusive more exclusive most exclusive
Short adjectives take er/est, and long adjectives take more/most. For rules about
which adjectives count as short and which as long, • (4).
NOTE


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NOTE
a There are some spelling rules for er/est.
No doubling of e: fine finer • 292(2)
Doubling of some consonants: hot hottest • 293
Y changing to i: heavy heavier • 294
b For less soft, least exclusive, • 221(2).
c In rather formal English most can mean 'very'. Compare the most and a most.
Superlative: It's the most exclusive store in New York.
Degree: It's a most exclusive store. (= very exclusive)
d When we compare two qualities, we use more, not er.
I was more sad than angry.


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I was more sad than angry.
Here are two other ways of saying the same thing.
I was not so much angry as sad.
I was sad rather than angry.
PAGE 279 218 Comparative and superlative of adjectives b There are a few irregular forms.
Comparative Superlative
good better best
bad worse worst
far farther/further farthest/furthest
The best restaurants are in Manhattan.
The weather is getting worse.
NOTE
a The adjectives well (= in good health) and ill take these irregular forms.


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I feel a lot better now. She looks worse today.
b For farther/further and elder/eldest, • (5).
3 Position
A comparative or superlative adjective can come in the same position as other
adjectives.
Attributive: a softer metal the most specialized services
Predicative: Gold is softer. Which building is tallest?
We usually put the before a superlative adjective.
Jupiter is the biggest planet.
Jupiter is (the) biggest.
4 Long and short adjectives


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4 Long and short adjectives
In general, short adjectives take er/est while long ones take more/most. One-
syllable adjectives count as short and three-syllable adjectives count as long. Most
two-syllable adjectives count as long but not all of them.
a One-syllable adjectives (e.g. soft, tall)
These take er/est (softer, softest). Exceptions are adjectives in ed (e.g. pleased,
bored) and the adjectives real, right and wrong.
The film made the story seem more real.


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The film made the story seem more real.
Some one-syllable adjectives of abstract meaning take either er/est or more/most,
e.g. clear, free, keen, safe, sure, true, wise.
I wish I felt surer/more sure about what I'm doing.
b Two-syllable adjectives (e.g. useful, happy)
The following take more/most (more useful, most useful).
Ending in ful: careful, helpful, hopeful, peaceful, useful, etc
Ending in less: helpless, useless, etc
Ending in ing: boring, pleasing, tiring, willing, etc


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Ending in ed: amused, annoyed, ashamed, confused, surprised, etc
Some others: afraid, cautious, certain, correct, eager, exact, famous, foolish,
formal, frequent, mature, modern, normal, recent
The following take either er/est or more/most: able, common, cruel, feeble, gentle,
handsome, narrow, pleasant, polite, simple, sincere, stupid, tired.
PAGE 28026 COMPARISON Two-syllable adjectives ending in y usually take er/est(happier, happiest), although


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more/most is possible. Some examples: dirty, easy, empty, funny, happy, heavy,
hungry, lovely, lucky, pretty, silly, thirsty, tidy.
NOTE
Happy etc can still take er/est, even with a negative prefix: unhappier, untidiest.
Also: unpleasantest/most unpleasant.
c Latest and last
Latest means 'furthest ahead in time' or 'newest'.
What's the latest time we can leave and still catch the train?
This jacket is the latest fashion.
Last means 'before' or 'final'.
I had my hair cut last week.


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I had my hair cut last week.
This is the last time I lend anyone my car.
d Nearest and next
Nearest means the shortest distance away. Next refers to one of a sequence of
things coming one after the other.
Where is the nearest phone box? (= closest, least far)
We have to get out at the next stop. (= the stop after this)
PAGE 281 218 Comparative and superlative of adjectives
c Adjectives of three or more syllables (e.g. difficult, magnificent)


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These always take more/most (more difficult, most difficult).
d Overview
Always er/est: Most of one-syllable, e.g. small
Usually er/est: Two syllables ending in y, e.g. lucky
Either er/est Some of one syllable, e.g. clear, true
or more/most: Some of two syllables, e.g. narrow, common
Always more/most: One syllable ending in ed, e.g. pleased
Most of two syllables, e.g. careful, boring
Three or more syllables, e.g. expensive, magnificent
5 Some special forms


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5 Some special forms
a Farther/further and farthest/furthest
These words express distance. We use them as adjectives and adverbs.
The farthest/furthest moon is 13 million kilometres from Saturn.
I can't walk any farther/further.
Further (but not farther) can express quantity.
Let's hope there are no further problems. (= no more problems)
b Older/elder and oldest/eldest
We use elder and eldest mainly to talk about ages in a family. They go before
the noun.
Have you got an older/elder brother?


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the noun.
Have you got an older/elder brother?
The oldest/eldest daughter married a pop singer. 26 COMPARISON PAGE 282
219 The comparative and superlative of adverbs
1 Some adverbs have the same form as adjectives, • 207(3-5). They take er/est.
You'll have to work harder if you want to pass the exam.
Let's see who can shoot the straightest.
Tim got to work a few minutes earlier than usual.
NOTE
Soon also takes er/est.
If we all help, we'll get the job finished sooner.


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2 There are a few irregular forms.
Comparative Superlative
well better best
badly worse worst
far farther/further farthest/furthest
I find these pills work best.
My tooth was aching worse than ever.
NOTE For comparison with far, • 218(5a).
3 Other adverbs take more/most. This includes almost all adverbs in ly.
You'll have to draw the graph more accurately than that.
The first speaker presented his case the most convincingly.
I wish we could meet more often.
NOTE


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I wish we could meet more often.
NOTE
Some adverbs can be with or without ly. • 207(4)
I got the bike fairly cheap/cheaply.
Such adverbs have two different comparative and superlative forms.
You could get one cheaper/more cheaply secondhand.
220 More, most, less, least, fewer and fewest
We can use these words to compare quantities.
Plural Uncountable
more (= a larger number)
You've got more cassettes than me.
most (= the largest number)
You've got the most cassettes of
anyone I know.


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You've got the most cassettes of
anyone I know.
fewer (= a smaller number) • Note
I buy fewer cassettes these days.
fewest (= the smallest number) • Note
You've got the fewest cassettes of
anyone I know.
more (= a larger amount)
They play more music at weekends.
most (= the largest amount)
This station plays the most music.
less (= a smaller amount)
There's less music on the radio at
weekends.
least (= the smallest amount)
This station plays the least music. 221 Patterns expressing a comparison


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NOTE
The rule is that we use fewer/fewest with a plural noun.
There are fewer cars on the road in winter.
But less/least with a plural noun is common, especially in informal speech.
There are less cars on the road in winter.
It is safer for the learner to avoid this usage.
221 Patterns expressing a comparison
MOTELS IN THE USA
Many motels are every bit as elegant, comfortable, and well-equipped as the most
modern hotels. Many have bars, fine restaurants and coffee shops for casual meals


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and breakfast. If the motel does not have a restaurant, there are always
restaurants nearby. Most rooms are furnished with television. Even less expensive
motels often have a swimming pool. The price for rooms in motels is usually
slightly less than for hotels.
(from USA Travel Information)
1 More, as and less
We can say that something is greater than, equal to or less than something else.
Most hotels are more comfortable than motels.
Some motels are as comfortable as hotels.


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Some motels are as comfortable as hotels.
Some motels are less comfortable than a modern hotel.
NOTE
We can make comparisons with same, like, similar and different.
Motels are the same as hotels. Motels are like hotels.
Motels are similar to hotels. Motels are not very different from hotels.
The following words can also express a comparison.
Paris is my favourite city. (= I like it best.)
Wood is superior to/preferable to plastic as a material. (= better)


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The car's speed exceeded ninety miles an hour. (= was more than)
2 Less and least
a Less and least are the opposites of more and most.
Motels are usually less expensive than hotels.
A motel will cost you less.
The subway is the least expensive way to get around New York.
We go out less often these days.
NOTE
We use less with both long and short adjectives.
It's cheaper/less expensive. It's more expensive/less cheap.


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b Whether we say, for example, warmer or less cold depends on our point of view.
It was cold in the house, but it was less cold than outside.
We choose less cold here because we are talking about how cold the house was, not
how warm it was. We can express the same thing using a negative sentence with as.
It was cold, but it wasn't as cold as outside.
In informal English this pattern is more usual. Less + adjective can be a little
formal.
PAGE 283 26 COMPARISON PAGE 284
3 As and so


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PAGE 283 26 COMPARISON PAGE 284
3 As and so
a We use a positive statement with as to say that things are equal.
Many motels are as comfortable as hotels.
My sister is as tall as me.
NOTE
a We can use as in idiomatic phrases.
as hard as iron (= very hard) as light as a feather (= very light)
b Note this use with numbers and measurements.
The temperature is often as high as 40 degrees.
(= The temperature is often 40 degrees, which is very high.)


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b In a negative statement we can use either as or so.
. Some motels are not as comfortable/not so comfortable as a good hotel.
The place isn't as crowded/isn't so crowded in winter.
I don't drink as much/so much coffee as you do.
Not as/so comfortable means 'less comfortable'.
c In attributive position, as + adjective goes before a/an.
This isn't as comfortable a hotel as the last one we stayed in.
Such replaces so in a phrase with a/an.


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Such replaces so in a phrase with a/an.
This isn't such a comfortable hotel as the last one we stayed in.
d We use as (not so) with the second item in the comparison. After as we can use a
phrase or clause.
Copper isn't as valuable as gold.
I came as quickly as I could.
No one scored as many points as Laura did.
4 Than
After a comparative we can use than with a phrase or clause.
Gold is softer than copper, NOT Gold-is softer as copper.
Going out alone is more difficult for women than for men.


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The motel was less expensive than I had expected.
Flying is a lot quicker than going by train.
There were more people in town than usual.
5 Pronouns after as and than
A pronoun directly after as or than has the object form unless there is a verb after it.
I'm not as tall as him/as tall as he is.
The other teams played better than us/better than we did.
NOTE I'm not as tall as he is formal and old-fashioned.
6 Comparisons without as or than


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6 Comparisons without as or than
We can leave out as/than + phrase or clause if the meaning is clear without it.
I liked the last hotel we stayed in. This one isn't so comfortable.
Gold isn't very suitable for making tools. Copper is much harder.
It's more difficult to find your way in the dark. 222 Special patterns with the comparative
7 Patterns with the superlative
After a superlative we often use a phrase of time or place, an of-phrase or
a relative clause.


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a relative clause.
It's going to be the most exciting pop festival ever.
Which is the tallest building in the world?
Titan is the largest satellite of all.
It's the most marvellous painting I've ever seen.
Peter is the least aggressive person I know.
NOTE
a An of-phrase can come in front position for emphasis.
Of all Saturn's moons, Titan is the largest.
b We sometimes use a pattern with one of/some of.
This building is one of the tallest in the world.
8 Much bigger etc


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8 Much bigger etc
We can use an adverb of degree in patterns expressing a comparison.
Gold is much softer than copper. • 212(2)
This is by far the best method. • 212(3)
Many motels are every bit as/just as elegant as the most modern hotels.
I'll need a lot more paper. • 212(8f)
222 Special patterns with the comparative
1 We use this pattern with and to express a continuing increase.
The plant grew taller and taller.
The roads are getting more and more crowded.


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The roads are getting more and more crowded.
There's more and more traffic all the time.
The problem is becoming worse and worse.
2 We use this pattern with the and a comparative to say that a change in one thing
goes with a change in another.
The longer the journey (is), the more expensive the ticket (is).
The further you travel, the more you pay.
The older you get, the more difficult it becomes to find a job.
PAGE 285 PAGE 286
27Prepositions
223 Summary
Introduction to prepositions • 224


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223 Summary
Introduction to prepositions • 224
A preposition is a word like in, to, for, out of.
Prepositions of place • 225
in the office under my chair across the road
Prepositions of place: more details • 226
Prepositions of time • 227
at six o'clock before dark for three weeks
Prepositions: other meanings • 228
a present for my sister a man with a beard
Idiomatic phrases with prepositions • 229
There are many idiomatic phrases.
for sale in a hurry by mistake
NOTE


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for sale in a hurry by mistake
NOTE
There are also many idioms where a preposition comes after a verb, adjective or noun. • 230
wait for a bus afraid of the dark an interest in music
For prepositions in American English, • 306.
224 Introduction to prepositions
1 A preposition usually comes before a noun phrase.
into the building at two o'clock without a coat
Some prepositions can also come before an adverb.
until tomorrow through there at once
We can also use some prepositions before a gerund.


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We're thinking of moving house.
NOT We're thinking of to move house. PAGE 287 224 Introduction to prepositions
We cannot use a preposition before a that-clause.
We're hoping for a win./We're hoping (that) we'll win.
NOT We're hoping for that we'll win.
But we can use a preposition before a wh-clause.
I'd better make a list of what we need.
NOTE For the difference between the preposition to and the to-infinitive, • 132(6).
2 The preposition and its object form a prepositional phrase.


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Preposition + Noun phrase
Prepositional phrase: towards the setting sun
behind you
The prepositional phrase functions as an adverbial.
They walked towards the setting sun.
On Saturday there's going to be a disco. '
It sometimes comes after a noun.
The disco on Saturday has been cancelled.
3 We can modify a preposition.
almost at the end right in front of me halfway up the hill
all over the floor just off the motorway directly after your lesson
4 In some clauses a preposition goes at the end.


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4 In some clauses a preposition goes at the end.
Wh-question: Who did you go to the party with? • 25(3)
Infinitive clause: I've got a tape for you to listen to. • 117(2)
Passive: War reporters sometimes get shot at. • 105(3)
Relative clause: That's the article I told you about. • 273 (4)
5 Some prepositions can also be adverbs.
Preposition: I waited for Max outside the bank.
We haven't seen Julia since last summer.
There was no lift. We had to walk up the stairs.


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There was no lift. We had to walk up the stairs.
Adverb: Max went into the bank and I waited outside.
We saw Julia last summer, but we haven't seen her since.
There was no lift. We had to walk up.
A verb + adverb like walk up, get in is a phrasal verb. • 231
6 Some prepositions of time can also be conjunctions. • 250(1)
Preposition: We must be ready before their arrival.
Conjunction: We must be ready before they arrive. 27 PREPOSITIONS
225 Prepositions of place
1 Basic meanings


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225 Prepositions of place
1 Basic meanings
There are some people
in/inside the cafe.
The man is waiting
outside the cafe.
There's a television
on the table. There's
a photo on top of the
television. There's
a dog under(neath)
the table.
There's a picture overt
above the door. There's
a small table under/
below the window.
She's going up the
steps, and he's
The road goes through
a tunnel. The car is
coming down the steps. going in/into the
tunnel. The lorry is
coming out of the tunnel.


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tunnel. The lorry is
coming out of the tunnel.
She's taking the food off
the trolley and putting
it on/onto the shelves.
The bus is at the bus
stop. It's going
from the city centre
to the university.
The lorry is travelling
away from York and
towards Hull.
The man is sitting next
to/by/beside the woman.
Their table is close to/
near the door. 225 Prepositions of place
The bus is in front
of the car. The lorry
is behind the car.
The car is between
the bus and the lorry.
The woman is walking


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the bus and the lorry.
The woman is walking
along the pavement
past the supermarket.
The man is on the
pavement opposite the
bank. The bank is across
the road.
The President is
standing among his
bodyguards. They are
all round/around him.
There's a hill beyond
the church.
(=on the other side of)
The man is leaning
against the wall.
a We use of only with on top of, out of and in front of. NOT inside of NOT off of and NOT behind of,
although outside of is possible,


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although outside of is possible,
b Two other prepositions of place are throughout and within. They are a little formal.
The epidemic spread throughout the country/all over the country. (= to all parts of)
Delivery is free within a ten-mile radius. (= inside)
c Beneath is rather literary.
From the balloon we could see the town far below/beneath us.
d Around and about mean 'in different directions' or 'in different places'.
We're going to drive around/about the country visiting different places.


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There were piles of old magazines lying around/about the flat. 27 PREPOSITIONS PAGE 290
2 Position and movement
a Most prepositions of place say where something is or where it is going.
Position: There was a barrier across the road.
Movement: The boy ran across the road.
b At usually expresses position, and to expresses movement.
Position: We were at the café.
Movement: We went to the café.
c As a general rule, in and on express position, and into and onto express movement.


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Position: We were sitting in the café. She stood on the balcony.
Movement: We went into the café. She walked onto the balcony.
NOTE
We sometimes use in and on for movement, especially in informal English.
We went in the café.
But sometimes the choice of preposition depends on the meaning.
We walked on the beach (for half an hour).
We walked (from the car park) onto the beach.
After lay, place, put and sit we do not usually use into or onto.


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They laid the body on a blanket. Tom sat down in the armchair.
3 Other meanings
a Some prepositions of place can also express time. • 227
Lots of people work from nine o'clock to five.
b Prepositions of place can also have more abstract meanings.
I'm really into modern jazz. (= interested in)
Ian comes from Scotland. (= He's Scottish./He lives in Scotland.)
The show was above/beyond criticism. (= too good to be criticized)
We are working towards a United States of Europe. (= working to create)


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The party is right behind its leader. (= supporting)
City are among the most successful teams in the country. (= one of)
For idioms, e.g. look into the matter, • 233.
226 Prepositions of place: more details
1 At, on and in
She's at her desk. It's on the desk. They're in the drawer. a At is one-dimensional. We use it when we see something as a point in space.
The car was waiting at the lights.
There's someone at the door.
We also use at+ event.
We met at Daphne's party, didn't we?


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We met at Daphne's party, didn't we?
We use at+ building when we are talking about the normal purpose of the
building.
The Browns are at the theatre. (= watching a play)
I bought these dishes at the supermarket.
Nicola is fifteen. She's still at school.
We also use at for a person's house or flat.
I had a cup of coffee at Angela's (house/flat).
b On is two-dimensional. We use it for a surface.
Don't leave your glass on the floor.
There were lots of pictures on the walls.


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There were lots of pictures on the walls.
We also use on for a line.
Paris is on the Seine.
The house is right on the main road, so it's a bit noisy.
NOTE
We also use on in this special sense.
I haven't got any money on/ with me at the moment.
c In is three-dimensional. We use it when we see something as all around.
I had five pounds in my pocket.
Who's that man in the green sweater?
There was a man sitting in the waiting room.
Compare in and at with buildings.


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Compare in and at with buildings.
It was cold in the library. (= inside the building)
We were at the library. (= choosing a book)
NOTE
Compare these expressions with corner.
There were shelves over the fireplace and a bookcase in the corner.
There's a newsagent's at/on the corner. You turn left there.
d In general we use in for a country or town and at for a smaller place.
We finally arrived in Birmingham/at Land's End.
But we can use at with a town if we see it as a point on a journey.


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You have to change trains at Birmingham.
And we can use in for a smaller place if we see it as three-dimensional.
I've lived in the village all my life.
226 Prepositions of place: more detailsPAGE 291 27 PREPOSITIONS
e Look at these phrases.
at 52 Grove Road
at your house
at the station
at home/work/school
at the seaside
at the back/end of
a queue
PAGE 292
on 42nd Street (USA)
on the third floor
on the platform
on the page
on the screen
on the island
on the beach/coast
on the right/left


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on the beach/coast
on the right/left
on the back of an
envelope
in Spain/Bristol
in Grove Road
in the lesson
in a book/newspaper
in the photo/picture
in the country
in the middle
in the back/front of
a car
in a queue/line/row
2 Above, over, below and under
a Above and over have similar meanings.
There was a clock above/over the entrance.
We do not normally use above to mean horizontal movement.
The plane flew low over the houses.
And we do not use above for an area or surface.


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And we do not use above for an area or surface.
Thick black smoke hangs over the town.
Someone had spread a sheet over the body.
NOTE
a We prefer over before a number.
There are well over fifty thousand people in the stadium.
But we use above with a measurement that we think of as vertical, such as temperature.
Temperatures will rise above freezing.
b In this example over has a special meaning.
The two leaders discussed world affairs over lunch. (= while having lunch)


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b We also use over for movement to the other side, or position on the other side
of aline.
The horse jumped over the wall. Was the ball over the goal-line?
Somehow we had to get over/across the river.
c Below is the opposite of above; under is the opposite of over.
We met at the entrance, below/under the clock.
We do not normally use below for a horizontal movement or for an area or surface.
Mike crawled under the bed in an attempt to hide.
The town lies under a thick black cloud of smoke.


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The town lies under a thick black cloud of smoke.
Compare below/under with above/over. • (2a) Note a
Temperatures will fall below freezing.
There are well under ten thousand people in the stadium. PAGE 293 226 Prepositions of place: more details
3 Top and bottom
On top of is a preposition.
There's a monument on top of the hill.
We can also use top and bottom as nouns in phrases like these.
There's a monument at the top of the hill.
The ship sank to the bottom of the sea.


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The ship sank to the bottom of the sea.
4 Through, across and along
through the gate across the road along the path
a Through is three-dimensional. You go through a tunnel, a doorway, a crowd of
people, and so on.
The water flows through the pipe. I looked through the telescope.
b Across is two-dimensional. You go from one side to the other across a surface such
as a lawn or a playground, or a line such as a river or a frontier.
You can get across the Channel by ferry.


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You can get across the Channel by ferry.
Sometimes we can use either through or across, depending on whether we see
something as having three or two dimensions.
We walked through/across the field.
c We use along when we follow a line. You go along a path, a road, a passage, a route,
and so on. Compare these sentences.
We cruised along the canal for a few miles.
We walked across the canal by a footbridge.
5 To, towards and up to
We use to for a destination and towards for a direction.


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We're going to Doncaster. My aunt lives there.
We're going towards Doncaster now. We must have taken a wrong turning.
Go/come/walk + up to usually expresses movement to a person.
A man came up to me in the street and asked me for money.
NOTE
As far as means going a certain distance.
We usually try to get as far as Doncaster before we stop for coffee. 27 PREPOSITIONS
6 Near, close and by
a Near, near to and close to mean 'not far from'.
Motherwell is near Glasgow, NOT by Glasgow


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Motherwell is near Glasgow, NOT by Glasgow
We live near (to) the hospital/ close to the hospital.
NOTE
Near (to) and close to have comparative and superlative forms.
You live nearer (to) the hospital than we do.
I was sitting closest to the door.
b Near and dose can be adverbs.
The animals were very tame. They came quite near/close.
Nearby means 'not far away'.
There's a post office near here/nearby.
The preposition by means 'at the side of' or 'very near'.


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We live (right) by the hospital. Come and sit by me.
d Next to means 'directly at the side of'.
We live next to the fish and chip shop.
At dinner I sat next to/beside Mrs Armstrong.
7 In front of, before, behind, after and opposite
a When we talk about where something is, we prefer in front of and behind to before
and after.
There's a statue in front of the museum, NOT before the museum
The police held their riot shields in front of them.


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The car behind us ran into the back of us. NOT the car after us
b Before usually means 'earlier in time', and after means 'later in time'. But we also
use before and after to talk about what order things come in.
J comes before K. K comes after J.
We also use after to talk about someone following or chasing.
The thief ran across the road with a policemen after him.
c Opposite means 'on the other side from'. Compare in front of and opposite.


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People were standing in front of the theatre waiting to go in.
People were standing opposite the theatre waiting to cross the road.
Gerald was standing in front of me in the queue.
Gerald was sitting opposite me at lunch.
PAGE 294 227 Prepositions of time
8 Between and among
a We use between with a small number of items that we see as separate and
individual.
The ball went between the player's legs.
Tom lives somewhere in that area between the hospital, the university and
the by-pass.


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the by-pass.
For expressions such as a link between, • 237(2c).
b Among suggests a larger number.
I was hoping to spot Marcia among the crowd.
227 Prepositions of time
1 At, on and in
We use these prepositions in phrases saying when.
See you at one o'clock. They arrived on Friday. We met in 1985.
a We use at with a particular time such as a clock time or meal time.
at half past five at breakfast (time) at that time at the moment
We also use at with holiday periods of two or three days.


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at Christmas at Thanksgiving at the weekend
NOTE
a USA: on the weekend
b We use at with someone's age.
A sporting career can be over at thirty.
b We use on with a single day.
on Tuesday on 7th August on that day on Easter Sunday
NOTE
On can also mean 'immediately after'.
On his arrival, the President held a press conference.
c We use in with longer periods.
in the next few days in the summer holidays in spring
in July in 1992 in the 19th century
We also use in with a part of the day.


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We also use in with a part of the day.
in the afternoon in the mornings
But we use on if we say which day.
on Tuesday afternoon on Friday mornings on the evening of the 12th
NOTE
An exception is at night. Compare these sentences.
I heard a noise in the night. (= in the middle of the night)
The windows are shut at night. (= when it is night) 27 PREPOSITIONS
2 Expressions of time without a preposition
a We do not normally use at, on or in in phrases of time with last, this, next, every,


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later, yesterday and tomorrow.
I received the letter last Tuesday. NOT on last Tuesday
We've been really busy this week. NOT in this week
You can take the exam again next year. NOT in the next year
The same thing happens every time. NOT at every time
A week later I got a reply. NOT in a week later
I'll see you tomorrow morning. NOT in tomorrow morning
NOTE
a We can use other prepositions.
After this week I shall need a holiday.
b In informal English we can sometimes leave out on before a day.


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I'll see you Monday.
c We do not use a preposition with these days (= nowadays).
It's all done by computers these days.
A For the with last and next, • 169(8).
b Sometimes we can use the preposition or leave it out.
Something else a bit unusual happened (on) that day.
I'd been ill (in) the previous week.
They agreed to meet (on) the following Sunday.
3 In + length of time
We can use in to say how long something takes.
Columbus crossed the Atlantic in seventy days.


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Columbus crossed the Atlantic in seventy days.
Surely you can change a wheel in fifteen minutes.
We can also use in for a time in the future measured from the present.
Ella takes her exam in three weeks/in three weeks' time.
NOTE
a Compare these sentences.
You can walk there in half an hour. (= you need half an hour)
I'm going out in half an hour. (= half an hour from now)
b We can also use within or inside to say how long.
I'll be back within/inside an hour. (= in an hour or less)


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4 During and over
a We use during with an event (e.g. the festival) or a period which is a definite time
(e.g. that week). It means the whole period.
Nobody does any work during the festival/during that week.
We cannot use during + length of time.
The festival went on for a week. NOT It went on during a week.
NOTE
When something happens for the whole period, we can use throughout or all through.
The population grew rapidly during/throughout the 19th century.


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Jeremy kept staring at Naomi during/all through lunch.
b We can also use during when something happens one or more times in the period.
The letter arrived during the festival.
I suddenly felt ill during the show.
I have to make several trips abroad during the next few weeks.
PAGE 296 c During is a preposition; while is a conjunction.
Someone told me the news during the tea break.
Someone told me the news when/while we were having a cup of tea.
d We can also use over for a whole period of time.


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Over the next few days, Simon and Kay saw a lot of each other.
Over a period of two months there were a hundred sightings of UFOs.
NOTE
The adverb over means 'finished'.
This programme will soon be over.
5 For and since
a We use for with a period of time to say how long something continues.
Rachel plays computer games for hours on end. NOT during hours • (4)
I once stayed at that hotel for a week.
I just want to sit down for five minutes.
NOTE


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I just want to sit down for five minutes.
NOTE
We do not normally use for before a phrase with all or whole.
It rained all day/the whole day.
b We often use for and since with the perfect to say how long something has
continued or when it started.
Giles has worked here for ten years now.
We haven't been to the theatre for months.
We've been waiting for twenty minutes.
The Parkers have lived here since 1985.
I haven't seen you since September.
We've been waiting since twelve o'clock.


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We've been waiting since twelve o'clock.
We use for + length of time and since + time when.
for two years for a week for two days for a few minutes
since 1990 since last week since Monday since half past two
NOTE
a We can sometimes leave out for in informal English.
We've been waiting here twenty minutes.
b We use during for a period which is a definite time. • (4)
During the last ten years Giles has been promoted at least three times.
c Compare these sentences.


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c Compare these sentences.
I've been here (for) ten minutes. I'll stay (for) ten minutes.
I've been here since twenty to four. I'll wait until four o'clock. • (6)
I arrived ten minutes ago. I'm leaving in ten minutes.
c We use the adverb ago for a past action at a time measured from the present.
Ago comes after the length of time.
Giles joined the company ten years ago. (= ten years before now)
We last went to the theatre months ago.


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We last went to the theatre months ago.
d We use the adverb before for a past action measured from the more recent past.
Giles left the company last year. He'd started work there ten years before.
(= ten years before last year)
227 Prepositions of timePAGE 297 27 PREPOSITIONS
6 Till/until and by
a We use till/until to say when something finishes.
Jim will be working in Germany till/until next April.
We sat in the pub till/until closing-time.
NOTE
a Till is more informal.


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NOTE
a Till is more informal.
b For from now to next April, • (7b). But NOT He'll be working there to next April.
c We can use up to in a positive sentence.
He'll be working there up to next April.
d Till/until does not express place.
We walked to the bridge/as far as the bridge. NOT till/until the bridge
But it can be a conjunction.
We walked on till/until we got to the bridge.
b We can use not... till/until when something is later than expected.
Sue didn't get up till/until half past ten.


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Sue didn't get up till/until half past ten.
c By means 'not later than'.
I'm always up by eight o'clock. (= at eight or earlier)
Can you pay me back by Friday? (= on Friday or earlier)
They should have replied to my letter by now.
Compare before.
Can you pay me back before Friday? (= earlier than Friday)
NOTE For by the time as a conjunction, • 250(1).
7 From and between
a We use from for the time when something starts.
Tickets will be on sale from next Wednesday.


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Tickets will be on sale from next Wednesday.
From seven in the morning there's constant traffic noise.
NOTE
Compare since with the perfect.
Tickets have been on sale since last Wednesday.
b After the phrase with from we can use to or till/until for the time when
something finishes.
The cricket season lasts from April to September.
The road will be closed from Friday evening till/until Monday morning.
NOTE Americans can use through, e.g. from Friday through Monday. • 306(3)


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c We can use between for a period after one time and before another.
Not many people work between Christmas and New Year's Day. 228 Prepositions: other meanings
228 Prepositions: other meanings
1 Prepositions can have meanings other than place or time.
We were talking about the weather.
According to the BBC, the strike is over. (= The BBC says ...)
Most people are against these changes. (= opposing)
We can have this pizza for tea. As for lunch, I'll get a sandwich.


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I'm reading a book by Iris Murdoch.
You need a pullover, so I'm knitting one for you.
You'd do anything for the sake of peace and quiet. (= in order to have)
Are you for the plan/in favour of the plan ? (= supporting)
Mrs Peterson is in charge of the department. (= head of the department)
Can I use a pencil instead of a pen?
I went to a lecture on Einstein.
On behalf of everyone here, I'd like to say thank you.
This car does at least fifty miles to the gallon.


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This car does at least fifty miles to the gallon.
It's up to you to make your own decision.
2 With has these meanings.
I went to the party with a friend. (= We were together.)
Pete is the man with long hair. (= He has long hair.)
I'll cut the wood with my electric saw. • (5)
They set to work with enthusiasm. (= enthusiastically)
With people watching, I felt embarrassed. (= Because people were watching...)
Without is the opposite of with.
Who's the man without any shoes on?


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Who's the man without any shoes on?
They set to work, but without enthusiasm.
NOTE
We can leave out any after without.
Who's the man without shoes on?
But we do not normally leave out a/an after with or without. NOT I went with friend.
3 Of has a number of different meanings.
the handle of the door • 146(3) a tin of soup • 144(3)
some of my friends • 178(1c) our first sight of land • 149(3)
We can also use of in the following pattern.


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We can also use of in the following pattern.
She's an actress of great ability. (= She has great ability.)
These souvenirs are of no value.
He was a man of medium build.
4 Some prepositions have the same meaning as a conjunction.
We decided against a picnic in view of the weather.
(= because the weather was bad)
Such prepositions are as well as, in addition to, besides, • 244(3); in spite of,
despite, • 246(4); as a result of, in consequence of, • 247(2); because of, due to, in


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view of, on account of, • 251(3).
PAGE 299 27 PREPOSITIONS PAGE 300
5 We use with and by to express means.
a We use with to talk about an instrument, a thing we use to carry out an action.
The thieves broke the door down with a hammer.
Just stir this with a wooden spoon, could you?
By is more abstract. It refers to the means in general rather than to a specific thing.
I paid by credit card. The motor is powered by electricity.
They broke the door down by force.
We use by before a gerund.


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We use by before a gerund.
They got in by breaking down the door.
NOTE
a Some passive sentences have by + agent.
The door was broken down by two men/with a hammer.
b We say write in pen/in pencil.
b We also use by + noun for means of transport. We do not use the.
I prefer to travel by train.
NOT travel by the train and NOT travel with the train
We can say e.g. by bike, by car/road, by taxi, by bus/coach, by train/tube/rail, by
boat/ship/ferry/hovercraft, by sea, by plane/air.


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boat/ship/ferry/hovercraft, by sea, by plane/air.
We do not use by to mean a specific bike, car etc.
I'll go on my bike. NOT ill go by my bike.
We can say on my bike, in the/my car, in a taxi, on the bus/train/boat/plane etc.
On foot means 'walking'.
I prefer to go on foot/ to walk. NOT go by foot
NOTE
Look at these examples expressing movement.
The passengers got into/out of the car/taxi.
Nancy got on/off her bike/the bus/the train.
We went on board the ship.


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We went on board the ship.
c We can also use by for means of communication, e.g. by letter/post, by phone, by
telegram/telex/fax.
I spoke to Andy by phone/on the phone. I sent the information by post.
NOTE Andy isn't on the phone. = Andy hasn't got a phone.
6 We use as to express a role or function.
Maria has come along as our guide. (She is our guide.)
I'm having to use the sofa as my bed. (It is my bed.)
We can sometimes leave out the after as. • 167(5)
We use like to express a comparison.


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We use like to express a comparison.
She slapped his face. The noise was like a pistol shot.
I think Louise looks a bit like Marilyn Monroe.
Compare as and like.
He speaks as an expert. He is after all a professor.
He talks like an expert, but really he knows nothing.
NOTE
a Like can also come in front position.
Like everyone else, I have to pay my taxes.
b Unlike is the opposite of like.


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b Unlike is the opposite of like.
It's unlike Fiona to be late. She's usually very punctual. 7 We use except (for), apart from and but to talk about an exception.
Everyone was there except (for)/apart from Nigel, who was ill.
I hate fish. I can eat anything except/but fish.
229 Idiomatic phrases with prepositions
1 There are very many idiomatic phrases beginning with a preposition. Most of them
are without a/an or the. Here are some examples.
All the money paid by investors is now at risk.


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All the money paid by investors is now at risk.
Mark always drives at top speed.
I dialled the wrong number by mistake.
I'd like to buy this picture if it's for sale.
Try to see it from my point of view.
You have to pay half the cost of the holiday in advance.
I can't stop. I'm in a hurry.
I drive about ten thousand miles a year, on average.
Did you go there on holiday or on business?
Mr Jones is on leave this week. He'll be in the office next Monday.


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There are so many different computers on the market.
I saw it on television.
I heard it on the radio.
I'm afraid the machine is out of order.
2 These pairs are different in meaning.
a In time (for/to) means 'early enough'; but on time means 'punctually'.
We arrived at the hotel in time for dinner/to have dinner.
The train left on time at 11.23.
NOTE
We arrived in good time for dinner. (= with plenty of time to spare)
We arrived just in time for dinner. (= with not much time to spare)


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b In the end means 'finally'; but at the end (of) means 'when it finishes'.
There were many arguments, but in the end/at last we reached agreement.
No one wanted to go home at the end of the holiday.
NOTE
Compare in the beginning and at the beginning.
In the beginning/At first the company struggled to survive, but now it is extremely
successful.
The students return to Oxford at the beginning of the academic year.
c In the way means 'blocking the way'; but on the way means 'on a journey'.


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I couldn't get the car out. Someone had parked right in the way.
It's a long journey. We'd better stop for a meal on the way.
229 Idiomatic phrases with prepositionsPAGE 301 28Phrasal verbs and patterns with
prepositions
230 Summary
Verbs with adverbs and prepositions • 231
A verb can combine with an adverb or preposition.
Verb + adverb (phrasal verb): We sat down.
Verb + preposition (prepositional verb): We looked at the menu.


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A prepositional verb always has an object (the menu). A phrasal verb sometimes
has an object. The adverb can go either before or after the object.
We put away the dishes.
We put the dishes away.
Phrasal verb meanings • 232
There are many phrasal verbs with an idiomatic meaning.
How did this come about? (= happen)
Nigel made up the whole story. (= invented)
Prepositional verbs • 233
There are also many prepositional verbs.
This umbrella belongs to one of the guests.
We were waiting for a bus.


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We were waiting for a bus.
Verb + object + preposition • 234
They charge £200 for a room.
Verb + adverb + preposition • 235
The gang got away with a large amount of jewellery.
Adjective + preposition • 236
I'm grateful for your help.
Noun + preposition • 237
We didn't get an answer to our question. 231 Verbs with adverbs and prepositions
1 Verb + adverb
A verb + adverb is called a 'phrasal verb'.
Come in and sit down.
I threw away my old briefcase.


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I threw away my old briefcase.
These adverbs are sometimes called 'particles'. They combine with verbs to form
phrasal verbs, e.g. call in, walk on, fall over, go under, climb up, fall down, watch
out, set off, hurry back, run away, squeeze through, fly past, pass by, turn round,
get about.
2 Verb + preposition
A verb + preposition is called a 'prepositional verb'.
I was looking at the photo.
We didn't go into all the details.


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We didn't go into all the details.
Prepositions combine with verbs to form prepositional verbs, e.g. believe in, look
into, insist on, hint at, see to, come from, look after, cope with, consist of, hope for,
feel like.
The preposition always has an object: believe in God, look into the matter, insist
on absolute silence. For more details about prepositional verbs, • (4).
NOTE
Sometimes an adverbial can come between the verb and preposition.


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I was looking carefully at the photo./I was looking at the photo carefully.
3 Word order with phrasal verbs
a Some phrasal verbs are intransitive, but others have an object.
Intransitive: Suddenly all the lights went out.
Transitive: Someone turned out the lights.
b When a phrasal verb has an object, the adverb can usually go either before or after
the object.
I threw away my old briefcase. We woke up the neighbours.
I threw my old briefcase away. We woke the neighbours up.


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The word order depends on what is the point of interest. Is it the object (the neighbours), or is
it the action of the phrasal verb (woke up)?.
We must have disturbed everyone in the street. We certainly woke up the neighbours.
There were lights coming on everywhere. We woke people up.
But in many contexts either order is possible.
But when the object is a pronoun, the adverb goes after it.
My old briefcase was falling to pieces. I threw it away.


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The neighbours weren't very pleased. We woke them up.
Neil borrowed some money from Maureen and never paid her back.
PAGE 303 231 Verbs with adverbs and prepositions 28 PHRASAL VERBS AND PATTERNS WITH PREPOSITIONS PAGE 304
d When the object is a long phrase, the adverb goes before it.
I threw away that rather battered old briefcase.
We woke up just about everyone in the street.
Neil never paid back all that money he borrowed.


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Neil never paid back all that money he borrowed.
e The adverb usually goes before other adverbials (e.g. nervously, on time).
Roger stood up nervously. The plane took off on time.
4 Phrasal verb or prepositional verb?
a The adverb can go before or after the object, but the preposition goes before its
object. Compare the adverb away and the preposition for.
Phrasal verb: Lisa gave away her computer.
Lisa gave her computer away.
Prepositional verb: Lisa paid for the meal.


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Prepositional verb: Lisa paid for the meal.
NOT Lisa paid the meal for.
A pronoun goes before the adverb but after the preposition.
Lisa gave it away.
Lisa paid for it.
NOTE
a The preposition comes at the end in some patterns. • 224(4)
What did Lisa pay for?
b Some phrasal verbs can have as their object a gerund clause, a wh-clause or a that-clause.
I've given up drinking alcohol. I read through what I had written.
Tom found out (that) the story was untrue.


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Tom found out (that) the story was untrue.
Some prepositional verbs can have as their object a gerund clause or a wh-clause.
Don't you believe in paying your taxes? • 132(2)
The answer you get depends on who you ask. • 262(5)
b Some words are always adverbs, e.g. away, back, out.
Some words are always prepositions, e.g. at, for, from, into, of, with.
Some words can be either an adverb or a preposition, e.g. about, along, down, in,
off, on, over, round, through, up.


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off, on, over, round, through, up.
c With phrasal verbs, the stress usually falls on the adverb, especially when it comes
at the end of a clause.
Lisa gave her computer a'way. What time did you get 'up?
With prepositional verbs, the stress usually falls on the verb.
Lisa 'paid for the meal. It de'pends on the weather.
5 The passive
Many phrasal and prepositional verbs can be passive.
Phrasal: The rest of the food was thrown away.
The alarm has been switched off.


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The alarm has been switched off.
Prepositional: The children are being looked after by a neighbour.
The matter has been dealt with.
We usually stress the adverb (thrown a'way) but not the preposition ('looked after). 232 Phrasal verb meanings
6 Adverb in front position
We can sometimes put an adverb in front position, especially one that expresses
movement. This gives the adverb extra emphasis.
The bell rang, and out ran the children.
Five minutes later along came another bus.


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Five minutes later along came another bus.
There is usually inversion of subject and verb (ran the children). But when the
subject is a pronoun, there is no inversion.
The bell rang and out they ran.
NOTE
We cannot normally use this pattern with a preposition.
NOT into the details we went:
7 Other words formed from phrasal verbs
We can use a verb + adverb as a noun.
Sue was at the airport an hour before take-off.
We offer a complete breakdown service.
We usually stress the verb: 'take-off.


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We usually stress the verb: 'take-off.
We can also use a passive participle + adverb before a noun.
Sam attacked the wasp with a rolled-up newspaper.
NOTE
Some nouns have the adverb before the verb.
an outbreak of rioting the amused onlookers
We stress the adverb: 'outbreak.
232 Phrasal verb meanings
1 Introduction
a Some phrasal verbs are easy to understand if you know the meaning of each word.
You'll have to turn round here and go back.
Jeremy stopped and put down both the suitcases.


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Jeremy stopped and put down both the suitcases.
These verbs express movement.
But often the phrasal verb has an idiomatic meaning.
I've given up smoking. (= stopped)
The idea has caught on in a big way. (= become popular)
NOTE
Sometimes the adverb adds very little to the meaning.
David rang me (up) yesterday.
b Sometimes there is a one-word verb with the same meaning as the phrasal verb.
The phrasal verb is usually more informal.
Scientists are trying to find out/discover the reason why.


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We must fix up/arrange a meeting.
The problem won't just go away/disappear.
The accident held up/delayed traffic for an hour.
You have failed to keep up/maintain your monthly payments.
You've left out/omitted two names from the guest list.
They've put off/postponed the match until next week.
A new company has been set up/established.
PAGE 305 28 PHRASAL VERBS AND PATTERNS WITH PREPOSITIONS PAGE 306
c Some verbs can take a number of different adverbs.
The child took two steps and fell down.


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The child took two steps and fell down.
Enthusiasm for the project has fallen off. (= become less)
Kevin and Diana have fallen out. (= quarrelled)
I'm afraid the deal fell through. (= didn't happen)
And the most common adverbs go with many different verbs.
The cat got up a tree and couldn't climb down.
I can't bend down in these trousers.
A pedestrian was knocked down by a car.
Interest rates may come down soon.
d A phrasal verb can have more than one meaning, often a concrete and an abstract


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meaning.
We've been to the supermarket. Gavin is bringing in the groceries.
The government are bringing in a new law. (= introducing)
2 Some common adverbs
Here are some adverbs used in phrasal verbs.
back = in return
ring/phone you back later, invite someone back, get your money back
down = to the ground
knocked down/pulled down the old hospital, burn down, cut down a tree, break
down a door
down = on paper
write down the number, copy down, note down, take down
down = becoming less


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down = becoming less
turn down the volume, slow down, afire dying down, let down the tyres
down = stopping completely
a car that broke down, a factory closing down
off = away, departing/removing
start off/set off on a journey, clear off, a plane taking off, see someone off, sell
goods off cheaply, strip off wallpaper
off = away from work
knocking off at five (informal), take a day off
off = disconnected
put off/turn off/switch off the heating, cut off our water, ring off
off = succeeding


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off = succeeding
the plan didn't come off, managed to pull it off
on = wearing
trying a coat on, had a sweater on, put my shoes on
on = connected
put/turned/switched the cooker on
on = continuing
go on/carry on a bit longer, work on late, hang on/hold on (= wait), keep on
doing something
out= away, disappearing
rub out these pencil marks, cross out, wipe out, put out afire, turn out the light,
blow out a candle, iron out the creases out= completely, to an end


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my pen has run out, it turned out all right in the end, clean out a cupboard, fill
out a form, work out/think out/find out the answer, write out in full, wear out
the motor, sort out the confusion
out= unconscious
the boxer was knocked out, I passed out/blacked out.
out= to different people
gave out/handed out copies of the worksheet, shared out the food between them
out= aloud
read out the rules for everyone to hear, shout out, cry out, speak out (= express
an opinion publicly)


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an opinion publicly)
out= clearly seen
can't make out the words, stand out in a crowd, pick out the best, point out a
mistake
over= from start to finish
read over/check over what I've written, think over/talk over a problem, go over
the details, get over an illness
up = growing, increasing
blowing up balloons, pump up a tyre, turn up the volume, step up production,
bring up children
up = completely
lock up before leaving, eat/drink it up, clear up/tidy up the mess, use up all the


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sugar, pack up my things, sum up (= summarize), cut up into little pieces
3 More phrasal verbs
A car drew up/pulled up beside us.
We manage to get by on very little money.
What time did you get up?
You'd better look out/watch out or you'll be in trouble.
Look up the word in a dictionary.
We can put you up in our spare bedroom.
The cat was run over by a bus.
We're too busy to take on more work.
The company has taken over a number of small firms.
Why not take up a new hobby?


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Why not take up a new hobby?
No one washed up after the meal.
4 Be + adverb
We can use an adverb with be.
We'll be away on holiday next week. (= not at home)
Will you be in tomorrow? (= at home)
Long skirts are in at the moment. (= in fashion)
The match is off because of the weather. (= not taking place)
Is there anything on at the theatre? (= showing, happening)
I rang but you were out. (= not at home)
The party's over. It's time to go. (= finished)


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The party's over. It's time to go. (= finished)
What's up? (= What's the matter?/What's happening?)
PAGE 307 232 Phrasal verb meanings 28 PHRASAL VERBS AND PATTERNS WITH PREPOSITIONS PAGE 308
233 Prepositional verbs
1 A prepositional verb is a verb + preposition, e.g. ask for, depend on. • 231 (2)
Which preposition goes after the verb is mainly a matter of idiom. Some verbs can
take a number of different prepositions.
Come and look at the view.
We spent an hour looking round the shops.


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We spent an hour looking round the shops.
Can you help me look for my cheque book?
I had to stay at home to look after the dog.
The police are looking into the incident.
People look on this neighbourhood as the least desirable in town.
NOTE
a A few prepositional verbs have the same meaning as a one-word verb.
I asked for/requested a room facing south.
We got to/reached the airport just in time.
How did you come by/obtain these documents?


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How did you come by/obtain these documents?
b Some verbs can take either a direct object or a preposition, depending on the meaning.
I paid the taxi-driver/the bill.
I paid for the taxi.
The committee approved the plans. (= accepted, allowed)
I don't approve of laziness. (= think it right)
2 There are many prepositional verbs. Here are some examples.
The man admitted to/confessed to the crime.
It all amounts to/comes to quite a lot of money.
We apologize for the delay.


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We apologize for the delay.
Tina has applied for dozens of jobs.
We arrived at/in Ipswich ten minutes late.
That's no way to behave to/towards your friends.
I don't believe in eating meat.
Who does this bag belong to?
We should benefit from the tax changes.
I came across the article in a magazine.
The car collided with a van.
I want to concentrate on my maths.
The flat consists of four rooms.
We managed to cope with all of these difficulties.
The car crashed into a wall.


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The car crashed into a wall.
I'll have to deal with/see about the arrangements.
We decided on a caravan holiday.
The price depends on when you travel.
Can you dispose of the rubbish?
We have to do without/go without luxuries.
You didn't fall for that trick, did you?
I don't feel like doing any work.
Brown doesn't go with grey.
Has anything like that ever happened to you?
We're hoping for an improvement in the weather.
She insisted on playing her tape.


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She insisted on playing her tape.
Why do other people always interfere in/with my affairs?
Someone was knocking at/on the door.
I was listening to the weather forecast. You just can't live on £80 a week.
I objected to being kept waiting.
An idea has just occurred to me.
He hates parting with his money.
Seventy countries participated in the Games.
The man pointed at/to a sign.
I ran into/bumped into Alex yesterday. (= met by chance)
What does this number refer to?
Please refrain from smoking.


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Please refrain from smoking.
The professor is researching into tropical diseases.
You can't rely on/count on the bus being on time.
If all else fails, people will resort to violence.
I'm revising for/preparing for my exam.
I'll have to see to/attend to the arrangements.
We had to send for the doctor.
What does BBC stand for?
Let's stick to our original plan.
Simon succeeded in starting the car.
Tim suffers from back-ache.
The girl takes after her mother. (= is like)


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The girl takes after her mother. (= is like)
You'll have to wait for the results.
You couldn't wish for anything nicer.
For prepositional verb + gerund, e.g. insisted on playing, • 132(2).
NOTE
Sometimes the choice of preposition depends on the meaning.
a Yes, you're right. I quite agree with you.
We all agreed to/with the suggestion.
b The doctor is going to call on Mrs Phillips to see how she is.
Tony is giving me a lift. He's going to call for me at ten.


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The United Nations has called for a cease-fire. (= demanded)
c I don't care about the exam. It isn't important.
Ben doesn't care for modern art. (= like)
Someone has to care for the sick. (= look after)
d I'm sure Helen can deal with the situation. (= handle)
The company deals in commercial properties. (= buys and sells)
e People are dying of hunger.
I was dying for/ longing for a coffee. (= want very much)
f Poor management resulted in huge losses.


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f Poor management resulted in huge losses.
The huge losses resulted from poor management.
3 We can use about, of and to with some verbs expressing speech or thought.
a About can come after many verbs.
We were talking about house prices. They complained about the noise.
Someone was enquiring about reservations.
NOTE
a Compare ask about, ask for and ask after.
We asked about cheap tickets. ('Please tell us ...')
We asked for cheap tickets. ('Please give us ...')


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Sarah asked after you. (= asked how you are)
b We can also use on with comment and report.
The company refused to comment on/ about the article.
c Discuss takes a direct object.
We were discussing house prices. ...
PAGE 309 233 Prepositional verbs b We can sometimes use of meaning about, but this is rather formal.
The Prime Minister spoke of / about prospects for industry.
Of can have a different meaning from about.
I was thinking about that problem. (= turning it over in my mind)


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I couldn't think of the man's name. (= it wouldn't come into my mind)
We're thinking of/about taking a holiday. (= deciding)
What did you think of the hotel? (= your opinion)
I heard about your recent success. Congratulations.
I've never heard of Woolavington. Where is it?
Last night I dreamt about something that happened years ago.
I wouldn't dream of criticizing you. (= it wouldn't enter my mind)
NOTE I've heard from Max means that Max has written to me or phoned me.


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c We use to before a person.
We were talking to our friends. They complained to the neighbours.
NOTE
a Ring and phone take an object. We do not use to.
I had to phone my boss.
b We say laugh at, smile at and argue with.
The children laughed at the clown. Are you arguing with me?
c Shout at suggests anger.
The farmer shouted at us angrily.
Bruce shouted to his friends across the street.
4 We do not normally use a preposition after these verbs: accompany, answer,


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approach, control, demand, desire, discuss, enter, expect, influence, lack, marry,
obey, reach, remember, request, resemble, seek, suit.
Elizabeth Taylor entered the room. NOT She entered into the room.
The rebels control the city. NOT They control over the city.
NOTE
a But a noun takes a preposition.
her entry into the room their control over the city
b Compare leave (= depart) and leave for (a destination).
The train leaves Exeter at ten fifteen. (= goes from Exeter)


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The train leaves for Exeter at ten fifteen. (= departs on its journey to Exeter)
For has the same meaning in this example.
The walkers were heading for/making for the coast.
c Compare search and search for.
The police searched the whole house. They were searching for/ looking for drugs.
234 Verb + object + preposition
Verb Object Preposition
Some companies spend a lot of money on advertising.
They've invited us to the wedding.
Do you regard this building as a masterpiece?


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Do you regard this building as a masterpiece?
In the passive, the preposition comes directly after the verb.
A lot of money is spent on advertising.
We've been invited to the wedding.
28 PHRASAL VERBS AND PATTERNS WITH PREPOSITIONS PAGE 310 234 Verb + object + preposition
2 Here are some more examples.
People admire the man for his courage.
Julie aimed/pointed the gun at the target.
The man was arrested/punished/fined for hitting a policeman.
Colin asked the waiter for a clean knife.


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Colin asked the waiter for a clean knife.
They blamed me for forgetting the tickets.
You can borrow an umbrella from someone.
The man was charged with/accused of robbery.
Compare hotel prices here to/with prices in London.
We congratulated Jane on passing her driving test.
The article criticized the government for doing nothing.
Heavy fines deter/discourage motorists from speeding.
The guides divided/split our party into three groups.
Can't we do something about the problem?


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Can't we do something about the problem?
Can I exchange francs for pesetas?
You can insure your luggage against theft.
We should invest money in new industries.
I've learnt something from the experience.
Everyone praised the child for her prompt action.
Most people prefer the new system to the old.
I remember this place as a little fishing village.
They've replaced the old red phone boxes with new ones.
Your action saved us from bankruptcy.
Tom had to share a bedroom with Andy.


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Tom had to share a bedroom with Andy.
We must stop/prevent the dog from getting out into the road.
The proposal struck me as a good idea.
Did you thank Michelle for the lift?
I took/mistook that woman for an assistant.
You have to translate the article into English.
They turned the old cinema into a night club.
For this pattern with a gerund, e.g. thank her for helping, • 132(3).
NOTE
Compare excuse for and excuse from.
Excuse/Forgive me for interrupting.


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Excuse/Forgive me for interrupting.
The soldier was ill and therefore excused from duty.
3 Compare these pairs of sentences.
I blame the government for our problems.
I blame our problems on the government.
The manager presented Harry with a watch.
The manager presented a watch to Harry.
The school provided the visitors with tea.
The school provided tea for the visitors.
The men robbed the club of £500.
The men stole £500 from the club.
NOTE
Supply means the same as provide.


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NOTE
Supply means the same as provide.
The school supplied the visitors with tea.
The company supplies a first-class after-sales service to/for customers.
PAGE 311 4 Sometimes the verb + object + preposition has an idiomatic meaning.
You'd better take care of your passport. (= look after)
You have to give way to traffic on the main road. (= allow to pass)
The speaker took no notice of the interruption. (= ignored)
5 We can use about, of and to after some verbs expressing speech and thought.


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a We can use about after tell and ask.
Has anyone told you about the new timetable?
I asked Dave about his plans.
After inform, and warn we can use about or of.
The management will inform the staff about/of the proposed changes.
I should warn you about/of the difficulties you may face.
NOTE
a We can also use against after warn.
The pupils were warned against taking drugs.
b Compare remind about and remind of.
Tracy reminded me about the meeting. (= told me not to forget)


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Tracy reminds me of her elder sister. (= is like, makes me think of)
b After write, explain and describe we use to before a person.
Lots of people write letters to the Queen.
I explained our problem to the official.
NOTE
Compare throw to and throw at.
Wayne threw the ball to Gary, who caught it.
Rachel was so angry with Tom that she threw a plate at him.
235 Verb + adverb + preposition
1 A verb can have both an adverb and a preposition after it. This is sometimes called


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a 'phrasal-prepositional verb'.
Verb Adverb Preposition
Lucy fell down on the ice.
The room looked out over farmland.
The astronomer gazed up at the stars
It's windy. Hold on to your hat.
Sometimes the meaning is idiomatic. Here are some examples.
I might call/drop in on Paul. (= pay a short visit)
Martin left half an hour ago. I'll never catch up with him now.
We were making good progress until we came up against the bureaucracy.
A scientist has come up with an interesting new invention.


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I'm trying to cut down on sugar. (= reduce)
The Old Greater London Council was done away with. (= abolished)
You've got to face up to the situation. (= not avoid)
I've got no job and no savings to fall back on. (= use if necessary)
I've got back-ache. I don't feel up to physical work.
I don't mind. I'll fit in with what you want to do.
28 PHRASAL VERBS AND PATTERNS WITH PREPOSITIONS PAGE 312 236 Adjective + preposition
The gang got away with several valuable works of art.


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I'd better get on with the tea. (= do a job)
Do you get on with your flat-mate? (= Are you good friends?)
I'll get round to fixing that door one day. (= find time for a job)
/ suppose we'll go along with the proposal. (= accept)
You can't go back on what you promised. (= do something different)
Mike has gone down with flu. (= suffering from)
Ben has decided to go in for teaching.
Just go/carry on with your work. (= continue)
You drive so fast I'll never keep up with you.


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You drive so fast I'll never keep up with you.
You've got quite a reputation to live up to. (= behave as expected)
Are you looking forward to your holiday?
Slow down. Look/Watch out for children crossing.
We need heroes to look up to. (= respect)
I got up late, and I've spent all day trying to make up for lost time.
The man owned up to a number of burglaries. (= admitted)
Why should we have to put up with this noise? (= tolerate)
The car's run out of petrol.


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The car's run out of petrol.
I'm going to send off/away for my free map. (= write to ask for)
Stand up to the dictator! Stand up for your rights!
3 There is also a pattern with an object between the verb and adverb.
Verb Object Adverb Preposition
We won't let anyone else in on the secret.
Diana has taken us up on our invitation.
236 Adjective + preposition
1 Some adjectives can take a preposition.
I'm fond of a good book. You'll be late for work.


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I'm fond of a good book. You'll be late for work.
Phil is good at quizzes. The place was crowded with tourists.
2 Many of these adjectives express feelings.
afraid of/frightened of/scared of/terrified of the dark
ashamed of myself confident of victory
crazy about/enthusiastic about aeroplanes curious about the affair
eager for news excited at/about the prospect
fed up with/bored with housework impressed with/by the performance


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interested in ballet jealous of/envious of rich people keen on fishing
nervous of heights proud of her achievements
satisfied with/content with my score tired of walking
worried about/upset about this setback
We can use at or by with alarmed, amazed, astonished, confused, shocked, and
surprised.
We were very surprised at/by the news.
For the pattern with a gerund, e.g. tired of walking, • 132(4).
For nice of you and nice for you, • 126(5).
PAGE 313 NOTE


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PAGE 313 NOTE
Sometimes the choice of preposition depends on the meaning.
a We can be happy/pleased/delighted with something close to us, something that is ours.
About and at are more general.
We're pleased with our new flat.
We're pleased at/about the election result.
b After furious, angry and annoyed we use at or about for what has made us angry
and with for the person we are directing our anger towards.
Polly was annoyed at/about the mix-up over her ticket.


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She was annoyed with the travel agent.
c Sorry for means sympathy for someone.
I'm sorry about the delay. I'm nearly ready.
I felt sorry for Daniel. He had a miserable time.
d Anxious for means 'wanting'.
I'm anxious about my health.
I'm anxious for the results of the tests.
e Concerned takes about, for or with.
We're very concerned about the missing girl. (= worried about)
We're concerned for her safety. (= wanting)
Alison's research is concerned with social trends. (= about, involved in)


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f We are grateful to a person for an action.
I'm very grateful to you for all your help.
3 We use good at etc to talk about ability.
Lee is good at skating. (= He can skate well.)
You're brilliant at maths. I'm hopeless at languages.
We use good for to say that something makes you healthy.
Physical exercise is good for you. Over-eating is bad for you.
To say how we behave towards another person we use good to, rude to etc.
You've been very good to/kind to me. You've helped me a lot.


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The waiter was barely polite to us.
4 Here are some more examples of adjective + preposition.
absent from work available to members/available for hire
capable of better things clear to/obvious to all the spectators
conscious of/aware of what you're doing dependent on public money
different to/from our normal routine a town famous for its history
fit for a marathon a bucket full of water guilty of murder
harmful to the environment involved in various activities


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kind to animals a door made of steel married to/engaged to a postman
opposed to the plan popular with young people present at the meeting
ready for/prepared for the journey related to a friend of ours
responsible for our safety safe from attack the same as always
I'm serious about what I said short of time similar to my last job
successful in my search food suitable for freezing
superior/inferior to other products sure of/certain of the facts
a style typical of/characteristic of the period


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a style typical of/characteristic of the period
used to/accustomed to late nights Welcome to Wales.
nothing wrong with me
28 PHRASAL VERBS AND PATTERNS WITH PREPOSITIONS PAGE 314 PAGE 315 237 Noun + preposition
237 Noun + preposition
NOTE
a Sometimes we use the same preposition as with a related verb or adjective.
Verb/Adjective + preposition Noun + preposition
He objected to the idea. his objection to the idea
It protects you from the cold. protection from the cold


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I'm interested in art. an interest in art
We were angry at what happened. our anger at what happened
Sometimes the verb takes a direct object but the noun takes a preposition.
Verb Noun + preposition
I answered the question. my answer to the question
They demanded more money. their demand for more money
b Some nouns can take different prepositions.
a discussion of/about/on politics today
Sometimes the choice of preposition depends on the meaning.


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his apology for being late his apology to the teacher
2 Here are some more examples of noun + preposition.
a Advantage
England had the advantage of playing at home.
There's usually an advantage in playing at home.
b Chance, possibility
the chance/opportunity of a quick profit no possibility of an agreement
c Connection, difference etc
a link/connection with another murder
a link/connection between the two murders
Jill's relationship with Hugo
the relationship between them


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the relationship between them
the contrast with the other side of town
the contrast between the two areas
the difference between American football and soccer
an alternative to conventional medicine
a substitute for wood
d Effect, influence
The new law has had some effect on people's behaviour.
The Beatles had a great influence on/over their generation.
e Increase etc
an increase/a rise in crime an increase la rise of ten per cent


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a reduction/decrease in sales a reduction/decrease of four per cent
a delay in approving the plan a delay of two months
1 Some nouns can take a particular preposition.
a tax on tobacco time for lunch the price of bread
no pleasure in shopping feel pity for the victims
an example of what I mean room for lots of luggage f Method, answer etc
a way/method of improving your memory the question of finance
the answer/solution/key to the problem a scheme for combating crime


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the cause of/reason for the accident
g Need, wish etc
These nouns take for: appetite, application, demand, desire, need, preference,
request, taste, wish.
a need for low-cost housing a desire for peace and quiet
NOTE
Hope takes of or for.
There's no chance/hope of getting there in time.
Our hopes of/for a good profit were disappointed.
h Opinion, belief etc
your opinion of the film his attitude to/towards his colleagues
a belief in conservative values an attack on the scheme


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no regard/respect for our institutions sympathy for the losers
people's reaction to the news
i Report, complaint etc
a report on/about agriculture a comment on/about the situation
an interview with the President about the military action
a complaint about the noise
j Student, ability etc
a student of law great ability in/at music
a knowledge of the rules research into waste-recycling
her skill at handling people an expert on/at/in work methods
some experience of/in selling
NOTE


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some experience of/in selling
NOTE
Compare success in, success at and make a success of.
We had some success in our attempts to raise money.
I never had any success at games.
Alan made a success of the taxi business.
k Trouble etc
having trouble with the computer What's the matter with it?
some damage to my car a difficulty over/with the arrangements
a lack of money
PAGE 31628 PHRASAL VERBS AND PATTERNS WITH PREPOSITIONS 29Sentences with more than one
clause
238 Summary
Types of clause • 239


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clause
238 Summary
Types of clause • 239
A sentence has one or more main clauses. A main clause has a finite verb. We use
and, or, but and so to join main clauses.
It was late, and I was tired.
We use because, when, if, that etc in a sub clause.
I was tired because I'd been working.
It was late when I got home.
A sub clause can be non-finite.
I was too tired to do anything else.
I was tired after working all day.
Clause combinations • 240


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Clause combinations • 240
A sentence can consist of a number of main clauses and sub clauses.
Tenses in sub clauses • 241
We often use the same tense in the main clause and sub clause.
They found an interpreter who spoke all three languages.
After expressions such as wish, we use the past simple or past perfect for
something unreal.
I wish the climate here was warmer.
Natalie looked as if she'd seen a ghost.
The subjunctive • 242
We can use the subjunctive in a few formal contexts.


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They requested that the ban be lifted.
We'd rather there were a doctor present.
239 Types of clause
ATTEMPTED SUICIDE
A New York painter decided to end it all by throwing himself off the Empire State
Building. He took the lift up to the 86th floor, found a convenient window and
jumped. A gust of wind caught him as he fell and blew him into the studios of
NBC television on the 83rd floor. There was a live show going out, so the


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interviewer decided to ask the would-be suicide a few questions. He admitted that
he'd changed his mind as soon as he'd jumped.
(from J. Reid It Can't Be True!) 29 SENTENCES WITH MORE THAN ONE CLAUSE PAGE 318
1 Main clauses
a We can use and to join two main clauses.
The man went up to the 86th floor and he jumped.
His paintings weren't selling, and he had money problems.
Two main clauses linked together are 'co-ordinate clauses'.


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When the subject is the same in both clauses, we can leave it out of the second one.
The man went up to the 86th floor and (he) jumped.
A gust of wind caught him and (it) blew him back into the building.
NOTE
a For ways of punctuating two main clauses,• 56(2).
b As well as the subject, we can leave out the auxiliary to avoid repeating it.
I've peeled the potatoes and (I've) washed them.
He was taken to hospital and (he was) examined.


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He was taken to hospital and (he was) examined.
c We can join more than two clauses. Usually and comes only before the last one.
He took the lift up, found a convenient window and jumped.
b We can also use or, but and so in co-ordinate clauses.
We can take a taxi or (we can) wait for a bus. • 245
He jumped off the 86th floor but (he) survived. • 246
There was a show going out, so they asked him some questions. • 247
NOTE


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NOTE
In informal English and can also mean 'but' or 'so' depending on the context.
He jumped off and survived. (= but)
The doctors found nothing wrong with him and sent him home. (= so)
c The two clauses can be separate sentences.
The man went up to the 86th floor. And he jumped.
He jumped. But then something amazing happened.
d And, or and but can also join phrases or words.
The painter and the interviewer had a chat. • 13
The man was shaken but unhurt. • 202(2,3)
2 Sub clauses


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2 Sub clauses
a Sometimes one clause can be part of another.
A gust of wind caught him as he fell.
He admitted that he'd changed his mind.
Here as he fell and that he'd changed his mind are 'subordinate clauses' or
sub clauses. In a sub clause we can use because, when, if, that etc.
b The word order in the sub clause is the same as in the main clause.
He admitted that he'd changed his mind.
NOT He admitted that he his mind had changed.


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NOT He admitted that he his mind had changed.
c A sub clause is part of the main clause, in the same way as a phrase is.
For example, it can be an adverbial or an object.
Adverbial: A gust of wind caught him on the way down.
• 248 A gust of wind caught him as he fell.
Object: He admitted his mistake.
• 262(1) He admitted that he'd changed his mind. PAGE 319 240 Clause combinations
Another kind of sub clause is a relative clause. •271
A man who had money problems threw himself off the building.


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This clause modifies a man.
3 Finite and non-finite clauses
a A finite clause has a main verb.
He regrets now that he jumped.
You can go up to the top of the building.
A finite clause can be a main clause (He regrets now) or a sub clause (that he
jumped).
NOTE
A finite clause has a subject unless we leave it out to avoid repetition.
The wind caught him and (it) blew him through the window.
b A non-finite clause has an infinitive, • 115; a gerund, • 128; or
a participle, • 134.


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a participle, • 134.
To tell you the truth, I was terrified.
He regrets now having jumped.
The people watching the show were astonished.
NOTE
A non-finite clause often has no subject, but it can have one.
The show having finished, the man left the studio.
240 Clause combinations
1 A sentence can have more than one main clause and/or sub clause.
I feel tired if I stay up, but I can't sleep if I go to bed.
The two main clauses (I feel tired, I can't sleep) are linked by but. They both have a


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sub clause with if.
We can also link sub clauses with and, or, but or so.
George knew that Amy was very ill and wouldn't live much longer.
Here and links the two sub clauses that Amy was very ill and (she)wouldn't live
much longer.
2 Look at these sentences with two sub clauses.
He admitted that he'd changed his mind as soon as he'd jumped.
Although it was hard work, I enjoyed the job because it was interesting.
Jane met the artist who painted the picture that caused all the controversy.


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3 We can also use non-finite clauses to build up more complex sentences.
He admitted having changed his mind after jumping.
The gallery intends to buy more pictures painted by local artists.
4 Look at these two sentences from a real conversation.
'Eventually we took off, but instead of landing at Zurich, we had to go to Basle,
which meant a longer, and an added train journey. Well, we hung about waiting
for a representative to come and tell us what to do, and after an hour and a half


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nobody came, so we took a taxi and went into Basle, and because we'd missed the
train we decided to stay the night there.'
(from M. Underwood What a Story!) 29 SENTENCES WITH MORE THAN ONE CLAUSE
These are the main clauses and sub clauses.
PAGE 320
Sentence 1
Main clause
Eventually we took off,
Main clause Sub clause Sub clause
but we had to go to instead of which meant a
Basle, landing at longer, and an
Zurich, added train journey.
Sentence 2
Main clause Sub clause Sub clause


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Sentence 2
Main clause Sub clause Sub clause
Well, we hung about waiting for a to come
representative
Sub clause Sub clause
and tell us what to do,
Main clause
and after an hour and
a half nobody came,
Main clause
so we took a taxi
Main clause
and went into Basle,
Main clause Sub clause Sub clause
and we decided to stay the because we'd
night there, missed the train.
241 Tenses in sub clauses
1 Sequence of tenses


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241 Tenses in sub clauses
1 Sequence of tenses
a The verb in a sub clause is usually in the same tense as the verb in the main clause.
Here they are both present.
Even some people who have tickets aren't able to get into the stadium.
And here both verbs are past.
Even some people who had tickets weren't able to get into the stadium.
When Jemima appeared I saw immediately that something was wrong.
I came home early yesterday because I didn't feel very well.


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We use the past (didn't feel) because we are talking about yesterday.
NOTE
Compare direct speech.
When Jemima appeared, I thought 'Something is wrong.'
b For the present simple in a sub clause of future time, • 77.
I'll ask Jemima when she gets here. 241 Tenses in sub clauses
2 Verbs after wish
a Wish - would
I wish people wouldn't leave this door open.
I wish Simon would reply to my letter.
This pattern expresses a wish about the future, for example a wish for a change in


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someone's behaviour, or a wish for something to happen. It can express a rather
abrupt request or complaint.
I wish you wouldn't smoke.
b Wish - past tense/could
I wish I had more spare time.
Bob wishes he knew what was going on.
I wish I could ski. I'm hopeless at it.
This pattern expresses a wish for something in the present to be different, for
example the amount of spare time I have. We cannot use would here.
NOT I wish I would have more spare time.
c Wish -past perfect/could have


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c Wish -past perfect/could have
I wish I had never bought this toaster. It's always going wrong.
I wish you'd told me you had a spare ticket for the show.
Angela wishes she could have gone to the party, but she was away.
This pattern expresses a wish about the past. We cannot use would have.
NOT I wish you would have told me.
d If only
If only means the same as I wish, and we use it in the same patterns.
If only Simon would reply to my letter.


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If only Simon would reply to my letter.
If only can be more emphatic than wish. It often expresses regret.
If only you'd told me you had a spare ticket for the show. I'd have loved to go.
NOTE
a After if only we can sometimes use the present tense in a wish about the future.
If only the train gets in on time, we'll just catch the two o'clock bus.
b Only can sometimes be in mid position.
If you 'd only told me, I could have gone.
3 The unreal present and past
a Compare these sentences.


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a Compare these sentences.
Past simple: Suppose we were rich. (We aren't rich.)
Imagine you wanted to murder someone. (You don't want to.)
Past perfect: I wish I had reserved a seat. (I didn't reserve one.)
I'd rather you'd asked me first. (You didn't ask me.)
The past simple expresses something unreal in the present, something that is not
so. The past perfect expresses something unreal in the past. We can use these
patterns with suppose, supposing, imagine; wish, • (2); if only, • (2d); would


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rather; if, • 257; as if/as though. NOTE
a After it's time we use the unreal past.
It's time I got my hair cut. It's rather long.
We can also use these patterns.
It's time for tea. It's time to get the tea ready.
b After as if/as though we can also use a present tense.
Gary behaves as if he owns/owned the place.
b After suppose, supposing or if we can use either the present or the past for a
possible future action.
Suppose/Supposing something goes/went wrong, what then?


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What if you don't/didn't have enough money to get home?
242 The subjunctive
1 The subjunctive is the base form of a verb.
The committee recommended that the scheme go ahead.
The Opposition are insisting that the Minister resign.
It is important that an exact record be kept.
We can use the subjunctive in a that-clause after verbs and adjectives expressing
the idea that an action is necessary, e.g. ask, demand, insist, propose, recommend,


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request, suggest; advisable, anxious, desirable, eager, essential, important,
necessary, preferable, willing.
NOTE
It often makes no difference whether a form is subjunctive or not.
We recommend that both schemes go ahead.
2 The subjunctive is rather formal. It is used more in American English. In British
English we often we use should instead, or we use the normal form of the verb.
The committee recommended that the scheme should go ahead.


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The Opposition are insisting that the Minister resigns.
NOTE
After an adjective we can use a to-infinitive.
It is important to keep an exact record.
3 There are some expressions that we use for something unreal, e.g. suppose, wish,
would rather, if, as if/as though, • 241(3). After these expressions we can use the
past subjunctive were instead of was.
Suppose the story was/were true.
The man looked as if he was/were drunk.


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The man looked as if he was/were drunk.
But were is a little formal and old-fashioned here, except in the phrase if I were you
(= in your place).
If I were you, I'd accept the offer.
29 SENTENCES WITH MORE THAN ONE CLAUSE PAGE 322 30And, or, but, so etc
243 Summary
We can use a conjunction to link two main clauses together in a sentence.
Tom had no food, and he had to pay the rent.
We can use an adverb or a prepositional phrase to link the meaning of two main
clauses or two sentences.


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clauses or two sentences.
Tom had no food, and he also had to pay the rent.
Tom had no food. He also had to pay the rent.
Tom had to buy some food. Besides that, there was the rent.
Words meaning 'and' • 244
and, too, as well (as), either, also, in addition (to), besides, furthermore, moreover,
both... and..., not only... but also...
Words meaning 'or' • 245
or, either ...or..., neither... nor...
Words meaning 'but' • 246


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Words meaning 'but' • 246
but, though, however, nevertheless, even so, all the same, although, even though,
in spite of, despite, whereas, while, on the other hand
Words meaning 'so' • 247
so, therefore, as a result (of), in consequence (of)
244 Words meaning 'and'
1 We can use and to link two clauses. • 239(1)
Gene Tunney was a boxer, and he lectured on Shakespeare.
The adverbs too and as well are more emphatic than and.
Gene Tunney was a boxer. He lectured on Shakespeare, too/as well.


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These adverbs usually come in end position.
The negative is either.
I haven't got a car, and I haven't got a bike either.
NOT I haven't got a bike too/as well.
Also usually goes in mid position.
Gene Tunney was a boxer, and he also lectured on Shakespeare. 30 AND, OR, BUT, SO ETC PAGE 324
We can use these forms to make an additional point, for example when developing
an argument.
I've got all my usual work, and in addition I've got to write a report.


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The material is very strong. Besides, it is cheap to produce.
It's raining quite hard. What's more, I have no umbrella.
Further(more) and moreover are a little formal.
The country had suffered greatly during the war. Furthermore/Moreover, it had
no money.
These matters are giving cause for concern. Further, I must draw your attention to
a recent press report.
And then and on top of that are informal.
I'm too busy to travel all that way. And then there's the expense.


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We've got workmen in the house. On top of that, my sister is staying with us.
NOTE
Plus as a conjunction is informal.
I've got all my usual work, plus I've got to write a report.
We can use the prepositions as well as, in addition to and besides with a noun or
gerund.
Gene Tunney was a university lecturer as well as a boxer.
In addition to doing all my usual work, I've got to write a report.
We can also use along with and together with before a noun.


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I've got my sister to look after along with the workmen.
Together with a film crew, they are walking towards the South Pole.
To add emphasis we can use both... and or not only ...but also.
Gene Tunney was both a boxer and a Shakespeare scholar.
He was not only a boxer, but he also lectured at Yale University.
245 Words meaning 'or'
We use or to express an alternative. Either... or is more emphatic.
You can go right or left.
You can go either right or left.


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You can go either right or left.
I've either left my bag on the bus or at the office.
Either you do the job yourself, or we pay someone to do it.
For or in questions, • 31.
NOTE
a We can also use alternatively.
We can cancel the meeting. Alternatively, we can find somewhere else to hold it.
b Or can mean 'if not'.
We'd better hurry, or (else) we'll be late/otherwise we'll be late.
In the negative we can use not ...or, but neither... nor is more emphatic and a
little more formal.


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little more formal.
The road was closed. I couldn't go right or left.
The road was closed. I could go neither right nor left.
A deaf-mute is someone who can't hear or speak.
A deaf-mute is someone who can neither hear nor speak.
Neither the post office nor the bank was/were open. 246 Words meaning 'but'
246 Words meaning 'but'
1 As well as the conjunction but, we can use the adverb though.
We found an Information Centre, but it was closed.
We found an Information Centre. It was closed, though.


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But always comes at the beginning of the clause and though (as an adverb) in end
position. Though is rather informal.
NOTE
a We can also use though as a short form of the conjunction although. • (3)
We found an Information Centre, though it was closed.
b There is a special use of may in a clause followed by but.
These pens are cheap/may be cheap, but they're useless.
2 We can also use the adverbs however and nevertheless.


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The Great Fire destroyed much of London. However/Nevertheless, only six people
lost their lives.
These adverbs are a little formal. They often go in front or end position. They can
also sometimes go in mid position or after the subject.
Only six people, however, lost their lives.
We can also use even so and all the same. They usually go in front or end position.
She has lots of friends. Even so/All the same she often feels lonely.
NOTE


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NOTE
Yet and still are usually adverbs of time; • 210(2). Yet can also be a conjunction meaning
'but'. It is a little formal.
There was widespread destruction, yet only six people died.
Still can be an adverb meaning 'but'.
I know flying is safe. Still, you won't find me on an aeroplane.
3 We can use a sub clause with the conjunction although. The sub clause comes
before or after the main clause.
Although the Great Fire destroyed much of London, only six people died.


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I drank the beer although I didn't want it.
Compare the use of but.
I didn't want the beer, but I drank it.
In informal English we can use though as a conjunction.
The team lost, though/although they played quite well.
Even though is more emphatic than although.
My father runs marathons, even though he's sixty.
NOT even although he's sixty
NOTE
There is a pattern with as or though where an adjective or adverb goes in front position.
Much as I like Tom, he does get on my nerves sometimes.


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Strange though it may seem, I've never been to Paris.
4 We can use the prepositions in spite of and despite with a noun or gerund.
In spite of/Despite the widespread destruction, only six people died.
The family always enjoy themselves in spite of having/despite having no money.
NOT despite of having
PAGE 325 We cannot use these words before a finite clause.
NOT in spite of the Great Fire destroyed much of London


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But we sometimes use in spite of/despite the fact that, especially if the two clauses
have different subjects.
In spite of the fact that the Great Fire destroyed much of London,...
But although is usually neater.
Although the Great Fire destroyed much of London,...
In the sentence The team lost but they played well, the conjunction but expresses
the idea that playing well is in contrast with losing and is therefore unexpected.
There is also a weaker meaning of but.


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There is also a weaker meaning of but.
I'm right-handed but my brother is left-handed.
Here but expresses the idea that something is different but not unexpected. To
express this idea of difference, we can also use the conjunctions whereas or while.
I'm right-handed whereas/while my brother is left-handed.
We can also use the adverbial on the other hand to link two sentences. It can go in
front, mid or end position or after the subject.


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front, mid or end position or after the subject.
Birmingham is a big city. Warwick, on the other hand, is quite small.
NOTE
We use on the contrary only when we mean that the opposite is true.
Warwick isn't a big city. On the contrary, it's quite small.
247 Words meaning 'so'
1 We use so to express a result.
It hasn't rained for ages, (and) so the ground is very dry.
So is a conjunction. It comes at the beginning of a clause.


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The adverb therefore is a little formal. It often goes in mid position, but it can go in
front or end position or after the subject.
There has been no rainfall for some time. The ground is therefore very dry.
NOTE
We usually repeat the subject after so.
We lost our way, so we were late.
2 We can also use the adverbials as a result, consequently and in consequence.
The computer was incorrectly programmed, and as a result/and in consequence
the rocket crashed.
In consequence is more formal.


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In consequence is more formal.
As a result of and in consequence of are prepositions.
The rocket crashed as a result of/in consequence of a computer error.
3 The ground is so dry (that) the plants are dying.
There was so much steam (that) we couldn't see a thing.
The place looked such a mess (that) I couldn't invite anyone in.
Here a sub clause (that the plants are dying) expresses the result of the ground
being very dry, there being so much steam, and so on. So and such express degree;


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• 212(4). We cannot use very or too in this pattern.
30 AND, OR, BUT, SO ETC PAGE 326 31Adverbial clauses
248 Summary
Introduction to adverbial clauses • 249
An adverbial clause plays the same part in a sentence as other adverbials do.
I listen to music in the car. (adverbial phrase)
I listen to music while I'm driving. (adverbial clause)
Some adverbial clauses are non-finite.
While driving I listen to music to pass the time.
Clauses of time • 250
It hurts when I laugh.
Clauses of reason • 251


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It hurts when I laugh.
Clauses of reason • 251
I bought this coat because it was cheap.
Clauses of purpose • 252
He wore dark glasses so that no one would recognize him.
Other adverbial clauses • 253
Sue parked the car where she had the day before.
No one else spends money the way you do.
Whoever, whatever etc • 254
Whoever suggested the idea, it's still nonsense.
NOTE
For contrast, e.g. although, in spite of, whereas, • 246.
For result, e.g. so/such ... that, • 247(3).


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For result, e.g. so/such ... that, • 247(3).
For conditions, e.g. if, unless, • 255.
For comparison, e.g. than, as, • 221 (3d, 4).
249 Introduction to adverbial clauses
1 An adverbial clause is part of the main clause in the same way as other adverbials
are, such as an adverb or prepositional phrase.
We could play cards afterwards.
We could play cards after the meal.
We could play cards after we've eaten.
PAGE 327 31 ADVERBIAL CLAUSES PAGE 328


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PAGE 327 31 ADVERBIAL CLAUSES PAGE 328
2 The clause usually goes in front position or end position.
If you like, we could play cards.
We could play cards if you like.
A comma is more usual when the adverbial clause comes first.
NOTE
It is possible but less usual for the adverbial clause to go in the middle of the main clause.
We could, if you like, play cards.
3 The order of clauses depends on what is new and important information. We


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usually put the important information at the end of the sentence.
I arrived about ten minutes after the start of the meeting. I was late because Don
was telling me his problems.
Here I was late relates back to ten minutes after the start. The information about
Don is new. But now look at this example.
You know how Don talks. Well, because he was telling me his problems, I was late.
Here the clause with because relates back to Don talks. The information I was late
is new.


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is new.
4 There are also non-finite adverbial clauses.
a We can use an infinitive or participle clause.
Check it again to make sure. Dave lay in bed thinking.
We can use a conjunction + participle or a preposition + gerund.
While waiting, Colin paced up and down. • 139(3)
You can't go all day without eating. • 132(8)
b With some conjunctions, we can form a short clause without a verb.
A car must be taxed when (it is) on the road.


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A car must be taxed when (it is) on the road.
These conjunctions are when, while, once, until, where, if and although.
For more examples, • 199(5c).
250 Clauses of time
1 We form an adverbial clause of time with a conjunction.
It always rains after I've washed my car.
The doorbell rang as/while I was changing.
I'll come and see you as soon as I've finished work.
Have some coffee before you go.
I've usually left the house by the time the postman comes.
NOT by the postman comes


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NOT by the postman comes
Once you've learnt to swim, you'll never forget.
Lots has happened since I last saw you.
Till/Until the cheque arrives, I can't pay my rent.
Mozart could write music when he was only five.
For before you go referring to the future, • 77.
Before, after, since and till/until can also be prepositions.
Lots has happened since your last visit. 250 Clauses of time
2 We can use a gerund after before, after and since. • 132(8a)
I always have a shower after taking exercise.


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I always have a shower after taking exercise.
3 We can use a participle after when, while, once and until. • 139(3)
Take care when crossing the road.
Please wait until told to proceed.
We can also use a participle without a conjunction. • 139(1)
Take care crossing the road.
Having glanced at the letter, Helen pushed it aside.
4 When, while and as refer to two things happening at the same time. For more
examples, • 66(2b).
a While and as suggest something continuing for a period of time.


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While Ann was in hospital, she had a visit from her teacher.
As we were cycling along, we saw a fox.
We can also use when here.
For a complete action we use when.
We were cycling along when we saw a fox.
When I arrived, the party was in full swing.
We can also use when for one thing coming straight after another. • 68(3)
When I knocked, Fiona opened the door.
b When can also mean 'every time'.
When you dial the number, no one answers.
I cycle to work when it's fine.


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I cycle to work when it's fine.
Whenever and every time are more emphatic.
Whenever/Every time Max calls, he brings me flowers.
c We can use as (but not while) to express the idea that a change in one thing goes
with change in another.
As we drove further north, the weather got worse.
Compare The further north we drove,... • 222(2)
d Just as means 'at that exact moment'.
Just as we came out of the theatre, the rain started.


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5 To emphasize the idea of one thing coming immediately after another, we can use
these conjunctions.
As soon as/Immediately the gates were open, the crowds rushed in.
The minute/The moment you hear any news, let me know.
We can also use these patterns with no sooner and hardly.
Martin had no sooner sat down than the phone rang.
I had hardly started work when I felt a pain in my back.
In both patterns we can use inversion. • 17(6c)
No sooner had Martin sat down than the phone rang.


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Hardly had I started work when I felt a pain in my back.
NOTE Americans do not use immediately as, a conjunction. • 307(3) 31 ADVERBIAL CLAUSES PAGE 330
251 Clauses of reason
1 We form an adverbial clause of reason with a conjunction such as because.
I made mistakes because I was tired.
As the weather is often warm, many of the homes have swimming pools.
Since no one asked me, I didn't tell them.
Seeing (that) it's so late, why don't you stay the night?


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Now (that) I've finished the course, I have to look for a job.
NOTE
a Compare a clause of result. • 247
I was tired, so I made mistakes.
b Because is the most common conjunction of reason. We can use it to answer a question
with why.
Why did you make so many mistakes? ~ (Because) I was tired.
c We sometimes use because to give a reason for saying the main clause.
Is your car for sale, because I might be interested?
d Compare these sentences.


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d Compare these sentences.
I didn't go to the exhibition because I was busy. I'm sorry I missed it.
I didn't go to the exhibition because I was interested. I went there to see Sandra.
In the second sentence there is extra stress on interested.
e For (= because) is formal and old-fashioned.
The soldiers were exhausted for they had marched a long way.
A clause with for comes after the main clause.
2 We can also use a participle clause. • 139(4)
Being tired, I made mistakes.


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Being tired, I made mistakes.
Having finished the course, I have to look for a job.
3 We can also use the prepositions because of, due to, in view of and on account of.
The new welfare scheme was abandoned because of the cost.
NOTE
a We can use a finite clause after in view of the fact that and due to the fact that.
The scheme was abandoned in view of the fact that it was proving unpopular.
b Out of can express a motive for an action.
I had a look just out of curiosity.


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I had a look just out of curiosity.
c Considering is a conjunction, preposition or adverb.
Considering (that) he's seventy, George is remarkably fit.
Considering his age, George is remarkably fit.
George is seventy, you know. He's remarkably fit, considering.
252 Clauses of purpose
We can use a to-infinitive clause to express purpose. • 119(1)
I'd just sat down to read the paper.
In order to and so as to are more emphatic. They are also a little formal.


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The company borrowed money (in order) to finance their advertising.
Paul wore a suit to his job interview (so as) to make a good impression.
(In order) to save time we'll fax all the information.
The negative is in order not to or so as not to but we cannot use not to on its own.
I wrote it in my diary so as not to forget. PAGE 331 253 Other adverbial clauses
After so that we use a finite clause, often with the present simple or with will,
would, can or could.


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would, can or could.
You should keep milk in a fridge so that it stays fresh.
I wrote it in my diary so that I wouldn't forget.
Why don't you take a day off so that you can recover properly?
In order that is formal and less common than so that.
We shall let you know the details soon in order that you can/may make your
arrangements.
NOTE
a We use so that rather than a to-infinitive when the two clauses have different subjects.
Moira left some salad so that James could eat it later.


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But after for we can use a subject + to-infinitive. • 126(6)
Moira left some salad for James to eat later.
b In informal English we can use so instead of so that. Compare purpose and result.
Purpose: I took a day off so (that) I could recover properly.
Result: The car simply refused to start, so (that) I couldn't get to work.
But generally we use so that for purpose and so for result.
c We can sometimes use to avoid or to prevent rather than a negative clause with so that.


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He kept his shirt on so that he wouldn't get sunburnt.
He kept his shirt on to avoid getting sunburnt.
We can use for with a noun to express the purpose of an action.
We went out for some fresh air. Why not come over for a chat?
To express the general purpose of a thing, we normally use for with a gerund.
A saw is a tool for cutting wood.
The small scale is for weighing letters.
We use the to-infinitive to talk about a specific need or action.
I need a saw to cut this wood.


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I need a saw to cut this wood.
I got the scale out to weigh the letter.
NOT I got the scale out for weighing the letter.
NOTE
a After use there can be either for + gerund or a to-infinitive.
We use a ruler for measuring/to measure things.
b There is also a pattern with for and the to-infinitive. • 126(6)
For the scale to register correctly, it has to be level.
But NOT for to weigh the letter
253 Other adverbial clauses
1 Place
Where the road bends left, there's a turning on the right.


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Sebastian takes the teddy bear everywhere he goes.
2 Manner
Do it (in) the way (that) I showed you.
Why can't I live my life how I want to live it?
Jessica behaved as/like she always does.
How can you act as if/as though nothing had happened? NOTE
a In British English like as a conjunction is often avoided except in an informal style.
It is safer to use as.
There was trouble at the carnival, as there was last year.
But we can use like as a preposition. • 228(6)


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But we can use like as a preposition. • 228(6)
Like last year, there was trouble.
b We can use look as if, look as though and look like (informal) to describe how
something looks.
You look as if/look as though/look like you've seen a ghost.
We can also use this pattern for what we can see is probably going to happen.
It looks as if/looks as though/looks like it's going to be a nice day.
We can also use look like + gerund with the same meaning.
It looks like being a nice day.
3 Comment and truth


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3 Comment and truth
As you know, things are difficult just now.
Putting it another way, why should I bother?
To tell you the truth, I don't think you've much chance of success.
As far as I can tell, there's nothing wrong.
4 In that and in so far as
The party was a disappointment in that/in so far as the celebrity guest
didn't turn up.
Here the sub clause explains in what way the main clause is true.
5 Except
The car's all right, except (that) the heater doesn't work.


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Leaving out that is informal.
254 Whoever, whatever etc
1 We can use these words with the meaning 'it doesn't matter who', 'it doesn't
matter what', etc.
Whoever plays in goal, we're bound to lose.
I won't change my mind whatever you say.
Whenever I ring Tracy, she's never there.
I can't draw faces, however hard I try.
We can use whoever, whatever, whichever, whenever, wherever and however.
NOTE
For Whoever is going to be in goal?, • 26(6c).
For Whoever plays in goal wears this shirt, •281.


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For Whoever plays in goal wears this shirt, •281.
2 We can also use no matter.
I won't change my mind no matter what you say.
No matter where we go on holiday, you never like it.
PAGE 33231 ADVERBIAL CLAUSES PAGE 333
32
Conditional clauses
255 Summary
The use of conditional clauses • 256
We often use if to express a condition.
If you're going into college, I could give you a lift.
Here there is a conditional clause (If you're going into college) and a main
clause (I could give you a lift).


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clause (I could give you a lift).
Conditions can be open or unreal.
Open: If it rains tomorrow, I won't go.
Unreal: If I was a bit taller, I could reach.
Verbs in conditional sentences • 257
There are many different combinations of verb forms. Here are some examples.
If I complain, no one ever takes any notice.
If I complain, no one will take any notice.
If I complained, no one would take any notice.
If I had complained, no one would have taken any notice.
Should, were, had and inversion • 258


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Should, were, had and inversion • 258
We can use inversion in clauses with should, were and had.
Should it rain, the reception will be held indoors.
If, as long as, unless, in case etc • 259
Besides if we can use other conjunctions to express a condition.
You can picnic here as long as you don't leave litter.
256 The use of conditional clauses
1 This real conversation contains some conditional clauses.
RENEWING YOUR LIBRARY BOOKS


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RENEWING YOUR LIBRARY BOOKS
Reader: And if I want to renew my books, do I have to come in, or can I phone
and renew them? I think there's a system where I can phone and tell you the
numbers or something like that?
Librarian: Yes, that's quite all right. Or you can even send us a letter. As long as
you give us the accession number of the book.
Reader: That's the number on the back? 32 CONDITIONAL CLAUSES PAGE 334
Librarian: No, that's the class number. The number - the accession number -


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you'll find if you open the book on the fly-leaf. It's usually about six numbers
at least. And if you'd give us that, the date that is stamped on the date label -
the last date stamped - and your name and address.
Reader: Uh-huh. If I do that, how do I know that it's all right? I mean, if you
want the book back, do you write to me?
Librarian: Yes, we would do that if you had written in, but of course, if you'd
telephoned or called in we could tell you then.
(from M. Underwood Listen to This!)


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(from M. Underwood Listen to This!)
Conditions express different degrees of reality. For example, a condition can be
open or unreal.
Open: If you join the library, you can borrow books.
Unreal: If you'd arrived ten minutes later, we would have been closed.
An open condition expresses something which may be true or may become true.
(You may join the library). An unreal condition expresses something which is not
true or is imaginary. (You did not arrive later.)
NOTE


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NOTE
A condition can also be definitely true.
I'm tired. ~ Well, if you're tired, let's have a rest.
The meaning here is similar to You're tired, so let's have a rest.
2 We can use conditional sentences in a number of different ways: for example to
request, advise, criticize, suggest, offer, warn or threaten.
If you're going into town, could you post this letter for me?
If you need more information, you should see your careers teacher.


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If you hadn't forgotten your passport, we wouldn't be in such a rush.
We can go for a walk if you like.
If I win the prize, I'll share it with you.
If you're walking along the cliff top, don't go too near the edge.
If you don't leave immediately, I'll call the police.
257 Verbs in conditional sentences
1 Introduction
a We can use many different verb forms in conditional sentences. Here are some
real examples.
If you haven't got television, you can't watch it.


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If you go to one of the agencies, they have a lot of temporary jobs.
If someone else has requested the book, you would have to give it back.
If you lived on the planet Mercury, you would have four birthdays in a single
Earth year.
In general we use verb forms in conditional sentences in the same way as in other
kinds of sentences. In open conditions we use the present to refer to the future (if
you go to one of the agencies). When we talk about something unreal we often use


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the past (if you lived) and would (you would have four birthdays).
NOTE
When the condition is true, we use verb forms in the normal way.
Well, if your friends left half an hour ago, they aren't going to get to Cornwall by tea time. b There are some verb forms which often go together. These patterns are usually
called Types 1, 2 and 3.
Type 1: If the company fails, we will lose our money.
Type 2: If the company failed, we would lose our money.


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Type 3: If the company had failed, we would have lost our money.
There is another common pattern which we can call Type 0.
Type 0: If the company fails, we lose our money.
c The if-clause usually comes before the main clause, but it can come after it.
• 249(2,3)
We lose our money if the company fails.
2 Type 0 conditionals
a The pattern is if...+ present... + present.
If the doorbell rings, the dog barks.
If you heat iron, it expands.


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If you heat iron, it expands.
Here the pattern means that one thing always follows automatically from another.
We can use when instead of if.
If/When I reverse the car, it makes a funny noise.
(= Every time I reverse the car,...)
b We can also use Type 0 for the automatic result of a possible future action.
If the team win tomorrow, they get promotion to a higher league.
This is an open condition. It leaves open the question of whether the team will win
or not.
NOTE


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or not.
NOTE
As well as the present simple, we can use the continuous.
If you're practising on the drums, I'm going out.
3 Type 1 conditionals
a The pattern is if...'+ present... + will.
If it rains, the reception will take place indoors.
If we don't hurry, we'll miss the train.
The milk will go off if you leave it by the radiator.
The if-clause expresses an open condition. It leaves open the question of whether


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it will rain or not. Here the present simple (if it rains) expresses future time; • 77.
We do not normally use will in an open condition.
NOT if it will rain But • (3d).
NOTE
a We can use will in the if-clause for a result, something further in the future than the
main clause.
If it does/will do me more good, I'll take a different medicine.
b We can use shall instead of will after I/we.
If we don't hurry, we will/shall miss the train.


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If we don't hurry, we will/shall miss the train.
b As well as the present simple, we can use the continuous or perfect.
If we're having ten people to dinner, we'll need more chairs.
If I've finished my work by ten, I'll probably watch a film on TV.
PAGE 335 257 Verbs in conditional sentences 32 CONDITIONAL CLAUSES PAGE 3
As well as will, we can use other modal verbs and similar expressions in the
main clause.
If we miss the train, we can get the next one.


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If we miss the train, we can get the next one.
If Simon is hoping to borrow the car, he's going to be disappointed.
If you phone at six, they might be having tea.
We can also use the imperative.
If you're going out, take your key.
If you drink, don't drive.
c A present tense in the if-clause can refer to the present.
If you like tennis, you'll be watching Wimbledon next week, I suppose.
If it's raining already, I'm definitely not going out.


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d We can use will in the if-clause for willingness and won't for a refusal.
If everyone will help, we'll soon get the job done.
If the car won't start, I'll have to ring the garage.
We can also use will in the if-clause for a request.
If you'll just take a seat, Mr Parsons will be with you in a moment.
4 Type 2 conditionals
a The pattern is if...+ past... + would.
If I had lots of money, I would travel round the world.
If Phil lived nearer his mother, he would visit her more often.


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I'd tell you the answer if I knew what it was.
Here the past tense expresses an unreal condition. If I had lots of money means
that really I haven't got lots of money, but I am only imagining it.
We do not use would for an unreal condition.
NOT if I would have lots of money But • (4e).
NOTE
We can use should instead of would after I/we.
If had lots of money, I would/should travel round the world.
b We do not usually mix the patterns for open and unreal conditions.


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NOT If I had lots of money, I will travel round the world.
c We also use the Type 2 pattern for a theoretical possibility in the future.
If you lost the book, you would have to pay for a new one.
If we caught the early train, we'd be in Manchester by lunch time.
Here the past tense expresses an imaginary future action such as losing the book.
Compare Types 1 and 2 for possible future actions.
Type 1: If we stay in a hotel, it will be expensive.


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Type 2: If we stayed in a hotel, it would be expensive.
Type 1 expresses the action as an open possibility. (We may or may not stay in a
hotel.) Type 2 expresses the action as a theoretical possibility, something more
distant from reality.
NOTE
It can be more polite to use the Type 2 pattern because it is more tentative.
Would it be OK if 1 brought a friend? ~ Yes, of course.
Shall we go along the by-pass? ~ Well, if we went through the town centre, it would


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probably be quicker. PAGE 337 257 Verbs in conditional sentences
d As well as the past simple, we can use the continuous or could.
If the sun was shining, everything would be perfect.
If I could help you, I would, but I'm afraid I can't.
As well as would, we can use other modal verbs such as could or might in the
main clause.
If I had a light, I could see what I'm doing.
If we could roll the car down the hill, we might be able to start it.
e We can use would in the if-clause for a request.


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If you wouldn't mind holding the line, I'll try to put you through.
Sometimes there is no main clause.
If you'd just sign here, please.
We can also use would like.
If you'd like to see the exhibition, it would be nice to go together.
5 Open conditions in the past
a We can use the past tense for an open condition in the past.
Perhaps Mike took a taxi. ~ Well, if he took a taxi, he ought to be here by now.
I used to live near the library. If I wanted a book, I went and got one/I would go


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and get one.
b We can use a Type 2 pattern as the past of a Type 1.
Type 1: Don't go. If you accept the invitation, you will regret it.
Type 2: I told you that if you accepted the invitation you would regret it. And
now you are regretting it, aren't you?
c We can combine a past condition with a future result.
If they posted the parcel yesterday, it won't get here before Friday.
6 Type 3 conditionals
a The pattern is if... + past perfect... + would + perfect.


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If you had taken a taxi, you would have got here in time.
If I'd phoned to renew the books, I wouldn't have had to pay a fine.
The man would have died if the ambulance hadn't arrived so quickly.
We'd have gone to the talk if we'd known about it.
(= We would have gone if we had known.)
Here the past perfect refers to something unreal, an imaginary past action. Ifyou
had taken a taxi means that you didn't take one.
We cannot use the past simple or perfect in the main clause.


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NOT If you had taken a taxi, you got/had got here in time.
NOTE
Would have (or had have) is not used in the if-clause except in very informal speech.
If you'd have taken a taxi, you'd have got here on time.
But many people regard this as incorrect. b We can use could + perfect in the if-clause.
If I could have warned you in time, I would have done.
We can use other modal verbs such as could or might+ perfect in the main clause.


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If I'd written the address down, I could have saved myself some trouble.
The plan might not have worked if we hadn't had one great piece of luck.
NOTE
We can also use continuous forms.
If he hadn't been evicted by his landlord, he wouldn't have been sleeping in the streets.
c We can mix Types 2 and 3.
If Tom was a bit more ambitious, he would have found himself a better
job years ago.
If you hadn't woken me up in the middle of the night, I wouldn't feel so
tired now.
NOTE


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tired now.
NOTE
We can also use a Type 1 condition with a Type 3 main clause.
If you know London so well, you shouldn't have got lost.
258 Should, were, had and inversion
The following types of clause are rather formal.
1 We can use should in an if-clause to talk about something which is possible but
not very likely.
I'm not expecting any calls, but if anyone should ring, could you take a message?
If you should fail ill, we will pay your hospital expenses.
NOTE
We can also use happen to.


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NOTE
We can also use happen to.
If anyone happens to ring/should happen to ring, could you take a message?
2 Sometimes we use the subjunctive were instead of was. • 242(3)
If the picture was/were genuine, it would be worth thousands of pounds.
If it wasn't/weren't for Emma, I'd have no friends at all.
(= Without Emma,...)
We can also use were to for a theoretical possibility.
If the decision were to go against us, we would appeal.


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3 We can express a condition with should or the subjunctive were by inverting the
subject and verb.
Should anyone ring, could you take a message?
Should we not succeed, the consequences would be disastrous.
Were the picture genuine, it would be worth thousands of pounds.
Were the decision to go against us, we would appeal.
We can do the same with the past perfect (Type 3, • 257(6)).
Had you taken a taxi, you would have got here on time.


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Had the guests not complained, nothing would have been done.
But an if-clause is more common, especially in informal English.
32 CONDITIONAL CLAUSES PAGE 338 259 If, as long as, unless, in case etc
1 If and when
If the doctor comes, can you let her in? (The doctor might come.)
When the doctor comes, can you let her in? (The doctor will come.)
We use if (not when) for an unreal condition.
If I could see into the future, I'd know what to do.
(I can't see into the future.)


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(I can't see into the future.)
But in some contexts we can use either if or when. • 257(2a)
2 Short clauses
We can use a short clause with if but without a verb.
I'd like a room facing the street if (that is) possible.
If (you are) in difficulty, ring this number.
For if so and if not, • 43(3e).
3 Then
After an if-clause we can use then in the main clause.
If the figures don't add up, (then) we must have made a mistake.
If no one else has requested the book, (then) you can renew it.


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4 As long as, provided etc
As well as if, we can also use as/so long as and provided/providing (that) to express
a condition.
You can renew a book in writing as long as/so long as you give its number.
I don't mind you using my bike provided (that) you take care of it.
We are willing to accept your offer providing (that) payment is made within
seven days.
Provided/Providing (that) is a little formal.
NOTE
a On condition that is formal.


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NOTE
a On condition that is formal.
We are willing to accept your offer on condition that payment is made within seven days.
b We can use the adverbial in that case (= if that is so).
I've lost my timetable. ~ Well, in that case I'll give you another one.
c We can use the prepositions in case of and in the event of.
In case of difficulty, ring this number. (= If you have any difficulty,...)
The prepositions with, without and but for can also express a condition.


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With a bit more time, we could do a proper job. (= If we had a bit more time,...)
But for the climate, Edinburgh would be a perfect place to live.
5 What if and suppose/supposing
After a conditional clause with these expressions, there is often no main clause.
What if the tickets don't get here in time?
Suppose/Supposing there's nowhere to park?
259 If, as long as, unless, in case etcPAGE 339 32 CONDITIONAL CLAUSES
6 Unless
a Unless means 'if... not'.


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6 Unless
a Unless means 'if... not'.
We're going to have a picnic unless it rains/if it doesn't rain.
You can renew a book unless another reader has requested it.
Unless you refund my money, I shall take legal action.
NOTE
We can use not unless meaning 'only if'.
We won't have a picnic unless it's fine.
Aren't you going to join us?~ Not unless you apologize first.
b When an unreal condition comes before the main clause, we cannot use unless.


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The horse fell. If it hadn't fallen, it would have won the race.
NOT Unless it had fallen, it would have won.
But we can use unless after the main clause, as an afterthought.
The horse won easily. No one could have overtaken it, unless it had fallen.
We do not use unless when we talk about a feeling which would result from
something not happening.
Alex wlll be upset if you don't come to the party.
I shall be very surprised if it doesn't rain.
NOTE
The adverb otherwise means 'if not'.


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NOTE
The adverb otherwise means 'if not'.
You are obliged to refund my money. Otherwise I shall take legal action.
c We can use and and or to express a condition, especially in informal speech.
Touch me and I'll scream. (= If you touch me, I'll scream.)
Go away or I'll scream. (= Unless you go away, I'll scream.)
PAGE 340
7 In case
You should insure your belongings in case they get stolen.
(= ... because they might get stolen.)


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(= ... because they might get stolen.)
I took three novels on holiday in case I felt like doing some reading.
We can use should.
Take a pill in case the crossing is rough/should be rough.
Compare if and in case.
I'll draw some money out of the bank if I need it.
(= I'll draw it out at the time when I need it.)
I'll draw some money out of the bank in case I need it.
(= I'll draw it out because I might need it later.)
But for in case of, • (4) Note c.


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But for in case of, • (4) Note c.
NOTE For in case in American English, • 307(2).
8 Even if and whether ...or
I wouldn't go on a camping holiday, even if you paid me.
NOT I wouldn't go even you paid me.
Joanne wouldn't want a dog even if she had room to keep one.
She wouldn't want a dog whether she had room for one or not.
Whether it's summer or winter, our neighbour always wears a pullover. 33Noun clauses
260 Summary
Introduction to noun clauses • 261


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260 Summary
Introduction to noun clauses • 261
A noun clause begins with that, a question word or if/whether.
Joanne remembered that it was Thursday.
I can't imagine where Peter has got to.
No one knew if/whether the rumour was true.
We can sometimes leave out that.
I hope (that) everything will be OK.
Patterns with noun clauses • 262
Noun clauses come in these patterns.
As object
I noticed that the door was open.
As complement
The idea is that we take it in turns.
As subject


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The idea is that we take it in turns.
As subject
That he could be mistaken didn't seem possible.
With the empty subject it
It didn't seem possible that he could be mistaken.
After a preposition
We had a discussion about who should be invited.
After an adjective
I was ashamed that I'd let my friends down.
After a noun
You can't deny the fact that you received the message.
261 Introduction to noun clauses
1 A noun clause begins with that, a question word or if/whether.


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I expected that we would be late.
We didn't know what time it was.
We'll have to decide if/whether we can afford it.
Here the noun clauses are the object of the sentence.
PAGE 341 33 NOUN CLAUSES PAGE 342
Compare a noun phrase and noun clause as object.
Phrase: We didn't know the time.
Clause: We didn't know what time it was.
A that-clause relates to a statement.
We would be late. that we would be late
A wh-clause relates to a wh-question.
What time was it? what time it was


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What time was it? what time it was
A clause with if/whether relates to a yes/no question.
Can we afford it? if/whether we can afford it
In a clause relating to a question we normally use the same word order as in a
statement. • 269(2)
NOT We didn't know what time was it.
In informal English we can often leave out that.
I knew (that) you wouldn't like this colour.
We often use noun clauses in indirect speech. • 263
You said you had the number. Mike asked what the matter was.


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We can sometimes use a to-infinitive with a question word or whether. • 125
The problem was how to contact everyone.
262 Patterns with noun clauses
1 The pattern You know that we haven't any money
a A noun clause can be the object of a verb.
Tim wouldn't say where he was going.
No one believes (that) the project will go ahead.
We regret that you did not find our product satisfactory.
I wonder whether that's a good idea.
NOTE


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I wonder whether that's a good idea.
NOTE
We can use a wh-clause or if/whether when the noun clause expresses a question or the
answer to a question.
I'll ask when the next train is.
The figures show how much the population has increased.
b With think and believe, we usually put a negative in the main clause, not in the
noun clause.
I don't think we've got time.
I think we haven't got time is less usual.
With suppose, imagine and expect, we can put the negative in either clause.


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I don't suppose you're used to this weather.
I suppose you aren't used to this weather. c Here are some verbs we can use before a noun clause.
accept demonstrate mean reply
add discover mention report
advise doubt mind request
agree dream notice reveal
announce estimate object say
answer expect observe see
anticipate explain order show
argue fear point out state
arrange feel predict suggest
ask find prefer suppose
assume forecast presume suspect
beg forget pretend swear


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beg forget pretend swear
believe guarantee promise teach
check guess propose think
claim hear protest threaten
command hope prove understand
complain imagine realize undertake
confirm imply recognize urge
consider indicate recommend warn
decide insist regret wish
declare know remark worry
demand learn remember write
Some of these verbs can also take a to-infinitive or gerund; • 121. Some verbs take
a to-infinitive or gerund but not a noun clause, e.g. aim, avoid, finish, involve,
offer, refuse.


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offer, refuse.
NOTE For require, intend, allow, permit and forbid, • 122(2b) Note a.
d Sometimes there is a phrase with to. . . .
We explained (to the driver) that we hadn't any money.
In this pattern we can use announce, complain, confirm, declare, demonstrate,
explain, imply, indicate, mention, observe, point out, pretend, propose, protest,
prove, recommend, remark, report, reveal, show, state, suggest, swear, write.
Sometimes there is an indirect object.


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Sometimes there is an indirect object.
We told the driver that we hadn't any money.
In this pattern we can use advise, assure, convince, inform, notify, persuade,
promise, reassure, remind, show, teach, tell, warn. With most of these verbs we
cannot leave out the indirect object. • 265(3)
For details about tell and say, •266(1). .
2 The pattern The problem is that we haven't any money
A noun clause can be a complement of be.
The truth is (that) I don't get on with my flat-mate.


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The difficulty was how Emma was going to find us in the crowd.
PAGE 343 262 Patterns with noun clauses 33 NOUN CLAUSES
3 The pattern That we haven't any money is a pity
We sometimes use a noun clause as subject.
That everyone got back safely was a great relief.
Which route would be best isn't obvious.
But it is more usual to use Pattern 4.
We do not leave out that when the clause is the subject.
NOT Everyone got back safely was a great relief.
NOTE


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NOTE
We can use whether (but not if) when the clause is the subject.
Whether I'll be able to come depends on a number of things.
4 The pattern It's a pity that we haven't any money
We often use the empty subject it. • 50(5)
It was a great relief that everyone got back safely.
It isn't obvious which route would be best.
It's hard to say if/whether it's going to rain (or not).
It's nice (that) you've got some time off work.
NOTE
a We can also use the fact that or the idea that.


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a We can also use the fact that or the idea that.
The fact that everyone got back safely was a great relief.
b For it as empty object, • 50(5b).
I thought it obvious which route would be best.
c For it with seem, happen etc, • 50(5c).
It seems (that) I've made a mistake.
d For the passive pattern It was decided that we should take this route, •109.
5 The pattern I'm interested in how we can earn
some money
A wh-clause or whether can come after a preposition.


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The government is looking into what needs to be done.
He made no comment on whether a decision had been reached.
We cannot use if.
We cannot use a that-clause after a preposition. Compare these sentences.
No one told me about Nicola's illness/about Nicola being ill.
No one told me (that) Nicola was ill.
NOTE
Sometimes we can leave out the preposition.
I was surprised (at) how cold it was.
There's the question (of) whether we should sign the form.


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Other expressions are to ask (about), aware (of), to care (about), certain (of/about),
conscious (of), curious (about), to decide (on/about), a decision (on/about),
to depend (on), to inquire (about), an inquiry (about), to report (on/about), sure (of/about),
to think (of/about), to wonder (about).
But with some expressions we cannot leave out the preposition.
There was a discussion about when we should leave.


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Others are confused about, difficulty over/about, an effect on, an expert on, an influence on/over,
interested in, a report on/about, research into, worried about. PAGE 345 262 Patterns with noun clauses
6 The pattern I'm afraid that we haven't any money
a We can use a that-clause after some adjectives.
I'm glad (that) you enjoyed the meal.
We were worried (that) there were no life guards on duty.
Lucy was sure (that) she could identify her attacker.
Some adjectives in this pattern are:


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Some adjectives in this pattern are:
afraid convinced impatient
amused delighted pleased
annoyed determined proud
anxious eager sorry
aware glad sure
certain happy surprised
confident horrified willing
conscious
NOTE
We can often use should. • 242(2)
I was surprised that Tom should be so upset over nothing.
The organizers were anxious that nothing should go wrong.
b We can use a wh-clause after sure and certain.
I wasn't sure when the visitors would arrive.


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I wasn't sure when the visitors would arrive.
After some adjectives we can use how or what expressing an exclamation.
I was surprised how upset Tom seemed.
Melissa was aware what a difficult task she faced.
7 The pattern The fact that we haven't any money
is a problem
We can use a that-clause after some nouns, mainly ones expressing speech or
thought.
The news that the plane had crashed came as a terrible shock.
You can't get around the fact that it's against the law.


