# embeddings_queue

created_at: 2026-04-10 11:25:43
topic: persistent://default/default/dee56c3c-7959-41bf-8874-992339d36293
id: 171bb9fb-e421-4015-aa3c-d0dcc7c147a4
encoding: FLOAT32
metadata:
{"company_id": "2", "course_id": "950", "lesson_id": "1230", "content_id": "1790", "file_name": "php tutorial_v1.pdf", "chroma:document": "string \"0\", and is true otherwise. \n \n\uf0b7 Values of type NULL are always false. \n \n\uf0b7 If the value is an array, it is false if it contains no other values, and it is true otherwise. \nFor an object, containing a value means having a member variable that has been \nassigned a value. \n \n\uf0b7 Valid resources are true (although some functions that return resources when they are \nsuccessful will return FALSE when unsuccessful). \n \n\uf0b7 Don't use double as Booleans."}


created_at: 2026-04-10 11:25:43
topic: persistent://default/default/dee56c3c-7959-41bf-8874-992339d36293
id: 46f746a2-f4ae-4c52-8ac1-d26fa801ef03
encoding: FLOAT32
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{"company_id": "2", "course_id": "950", "lesson_id": "1230", "content_id": "1790", "file_name": "php tutorial_v1.pdf", "chroma:document": "\uf0b7 Don't use double as Booleans. \n \nEach of the following variables has the truth value embedded in its name when it is used in a \nBoolean context. \n$true_num = 3 + 0.14159; \n$true_str = \"Tried and true\" \n$true_array[49] = \"An array element\"; \n$false_array = array(); \n$false_null = NULL; \n$false_num = 999 - 999; \n$false_str = \"\"; \nNULL \nNULL is a special type that only has one value: NULL. To give a variable the NULL value, \nsimply assign it like this: \n$my_var = NULL;"}


created_at: 2026-04-10 11:25:43
topic: persistent://default/default/dee56c3c-7959-41bf-8874-992339d36293
id: 83993a3c-4bdb-4b56-a2eb-2f7b304ecfa4
encoding: FLOAT32
metadata:
{"company_id": "2", "course_id": "950", "lesson_id": "1230", "content_id": "1790", "file_name": "php tutorial_v1.pdf", "chroma:document": "simply assign it like this: \n$my_var = NULL; \nThe special constant NULL is capitalized by convention, but actually it is case insensitive; you \ncould just as well have typed: \n$my_var = null; \nA variable that has been assigned NULL has the following properties: \n \n\uf0b7 It evaluates to FALSE in a Boolean context. \n\uf0b7     PHP \n30 \n \n\uf0b7 It returns FALSE when tested with IsSet() function. \nStrings \nThey are sequences of characters, like \"PHP supports string operations\". Following are valid"}


created_at: 2026-04-10 11:25:43
topic: persistent://default/default/dee56c3c-7959-41bf-8874-992339d36293
id: fd49bc7e-3f3e-4ca4-aefa-685a22eaf98d
encoding: FLOAT32
metadata:
{"company_id": "2", "course_id": "950", "lesson_id": "1230", "content_id": "1790", "file_name": "php tutorial_v1.pdf", "chroma:document": "examples of string: \n$string_1 = \"This is a string in double quotes\"; \n$string_2 = \"This is a somewhat longer, singly quoted string\"; \n$string_39 = \"This string has thirty-nine characters\"; \n$string_0 = \"\"; // a string with zero characters \nSingly quoted strings are treated almost literally, whereas doubly quoted strings replace \nvariables with their values as well as specially interpreting certain character sequences.  \n<? \n$variable = \"name\"; \n$literally = 'My $variable will not print!\\\\n';"}


created_at: 2026-04-10 11:25:43
topic: persistent://default/default/dee56c3c-7959-41bf-8874-992339d36293
id: 761cf22c-e881-4335-a390-c81d4f95e352
encoding: FLOAT32
metadata:
{"company_id": "2", "course_id": "950", "lesson_id": "1230", "content_id": "1790", "file_name": "php tutorial_v1.pdf", "chroma:document": "$literally = 'My $variable will not print!\\\\n'; \nprint($literally); \n$literally = \"My $variable will print!\\\\n\"; \nprint($literally); \n?> \n \nThis will produce the following result: \nMy $variable will not print!\\n \nMy name will print \nThere are no artificial limits on string length - within the bounds of available memory, you \nought to be able to make arbitrarily long strings. \n \nStrings that are delimited by double quotes (as in \"this\") are preprocessed in both the \nfollowing two ways by PHP:"}


created_at: 2026-04-10 11:25:43
topic: persistent://default/default/dee56c3c-7959-41bf-8874-992339d36293
id: f89b045e-143b-4c8c-ba64-a1bd979e01fe
encoding: FLOAT32
metadata:
{"company_id": "2", "course_id": "950", "lesson_id": "1230", "content_id": "1790", "file_name": "php tutorial_v1.pdf", "chroma:document": "following two ways by PHP: \n \n\uf0b7 Certain character sequences beginning with backslash ( \\) are replaced with special \ncharacters \n \n\uf0b7 Variable names (starting with $) are replaced with string representations of their \nvalues. \n \nThe escape-sequence replacements are: \n \n\uf0b7 \\n is replaced by the newline character \n    PHP \n31 \n \n\uf0b7 \\r is replaced by the carriage-return character \n \n\uf0b7 \\t is replaced by the tab character \n \n\uf0b7 \\$ is replaced by the dollar sign itself ($)"}


created_at: 2026-04-10 11:25:43
topic: persistent://default/default/dee56c3c-7959-41bf-8874-992339d36293
id: e8086cba-44aa-4ec1-ad97-71262dadebea
encoding: FLOAT32
metadata:
{"company_id": "2", "course_id": "950", "lesson_id": "1230", "content_id": "1790", "file_name": "php tutorial_v1.pdf", "chroma:document": "\uf0b7 \\$ is replaced by the dollar sign itself ($) \n \n\uf0b7 \\\" is replaced by a single double-quote (\") \n \n\uf0b7 \\\\ is replaced by a single backslash (\\) \n \nHere Document \nYou can assign multiple lines to a single string variable using here document: \n<?php \n \n$channel =<<<_XML_ \n<channel> \n<title>What's For Dinner<title> \n<link>http://menu.example.com/<link> \n<description>Choose what to eat tonight.</description> \n</channel> \n_XML_; \n \necho <<<END \nThis uses the \"here document\" syntax to output"}


created_at: 2026-04-10 11:25:43
topic: persistent://default/default/dee56c3c-7959-41bf-8874-992339d36293
id: 5c5f9ff4-a13a-4ff3-8b5f-bdb0f6d03fd9
encoding: FLOAT32
metadata:
{"company_id": "2", "course_id": "950", "lesson_id": "1230", "content_id": "1790", "file_name": "php tutorial_v1.pdf", "chroma:document": "This uses the \"here document\" syntax to output \nmultiple lines with variable interpolation. Note \nthat the here document terminator must appear on a \nline with just a semicolon. no extra whitespace! \n<br /> \nEND; \n \nprint $channel; \n?> \nThis will produce the following result: \nThis uses the \"here document\" syntax to output \n \nmultiple lines with variable interpolation. Note    PHP \n32 \n \nthat the here document terminator must appear on a \nline with just a semicolon. no extra whitespace!"}


created_at: 2026-04-10 11:25:43
topic: persistent://default/default/dee56c3c-7959-41bf-8874-992339d36293
id: ba398967-005b-4521-b977-27a366743c91
encoding: FLOAT32
metadata:
{"company_id": "2", "course_id": "950", "lesson_id": "1230", "content_id": "1790", "file_name": "php tutorial_v1.pdf", "chroma:document": "<channel> \n<title>What's For Dinner<title> \n<link>http://menu.example.com/<link> \n<description>Choose what to eat tonight.</description> \n \n \n \nVariable Naming \nRules for naming a variable is: \n \n\uf0b7 Variable names must begin with a letter or underscore character. \n \n\uf0b7 A variable name can consist of numbers, letters, underscor es but you cannot use \ncharacters like + , - , % , ( , ) . & , etc \n \nThere is no size limit for variables. \nPHP \u2013 V ariables"}


created_at: 2026-04-10 11:25:43
topic: persistent://default/default/dee56c3c-7959-41bf-8874-992339d36293
id: 8048a010-6b6d-4c82-8034-d3ab58d78911
encoding: FLOAT32
metadata:
{"company_id": "2", "course_id": "950", "lesson_id": "1230", "content_id": "1790", "file_name": "php tutorial_v1.pdf", "chroma:document": "PHP \u2013 V ariables \nScope can be defined as the range of availability a variable has to the program in which it is \ndeclared. PHP variables can be one of four scope types: \n \n\uf0b7 Local variables \n \n\uf0b7 Function parameters \n \n\uf0b7 Global variables \n \n\uf0b7 Static variables \nPHP Local Variables \nA variable declared in a function is considered local; that is, it can be referenced solely in that \nfunction. Any assignment outside of that function will be considered to be an entirely different"}


created_at: 2026-04-10 11:25:43
topic: persistent://default/default/dee56c3c-7959-41bf-8874-992339d36293
id: 1246253b-9d4a-4970-8795-04c7be9a65f5
encoding: FLOAT32
metadata:
{"company_id": "2", "course_id": "950", "lesson_id": "1230", "content_id": "1790", "file_name": "php tutorial_v1.pdf", "chroma:document": "variable from the one contained in the function: \n<? \n$x = 4; \nfunction assignx () {    PHP \n33 \n \n$x = 0; \nprint \"\\$x inside function is $x.  \n\"; \n} \nassignx(); \nprint \"\\$x outside of function is $x.  \n\"; \n?> \nThis will produce the following result. \n$x inside function is 0. \n$x outside of function is 4. \nPHP Function Parameters \nPHP Functions are covered in detail in  PHP Function Chapter. In short, a function is a small"}


created_at: 2026-04-10 11:25:43
topic: persistent://default/default/dee56c3c-7959-41bf-8874-992339d36293
id: e0e7ead8-436c-4fc8-8c35-853d66e3c8b6
encoding: FLOAT32
metadata:
{"company_id": "2", "course_id": "950", "lesson_id": "1230", "content_id": "1790", "file_name": "php tutorial_v1.pdf", "chroma:document": "unit of program which can take some input in the form of parameters and does some \nprocessing and may return a value. \n \nFunction parameters are declared after the function name and inside parentheses. They are \ndeclared much like a typical variable would be: \n<? \n// multiply a value by 10 and return it to the caller \nfunction multiply ($value) { \n    $value = $value * 10; \n    return $value; \n} \n \n$retval = multiply (10); \nPrint \"Return value is $retval\\n\"; \n?>"}


created_at: 2026-04-10 11:25:43
topic: persistent://default/default/dee56c3c-7959-41bf-8874-992339d36293
id: b255b4f2-9f38-4fd3-b56a-d5312eec1559
encoding: FLOAT32
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{"company_id": "2", "course_id": "950", "lesson_id": "1230", "content_id": "1790", "file_name": "php tutorial_v1.pdf", "chroma:document": "Print \"Return value is $retval\\n\"; \n?> \nThis will produce the following result. \nReturn value is 100    PHP \n34 \n \nPHP Global Variables \nIn contrast to local variables, a global variable can be accessed in any part of the program. \nHowever, in order to be modified, a global variable must be explicitly declared to be global in \nthe func tion in which it is to be modified. This is accomplished, conveniently enough, by"}


created_at: 2026-04-10 11:25:43
topic: persistent://default/default/dee56c3c-7959-41bf-8874-992339d36293
id: 173f4748-4641-4349-bcbb-3a599e1fb6aa
encoding: FLOAT32
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{"company_id": "2", "course_id": "950", "lesson_id": "1230", "content_id": "1790", "file_name": "php tutorial_v1.pdf", "chroma:document": "placing the keyword  GLOBAL in front of the variable that should be recognized as global. \nPlacing this keyword in front of an already existing variable tells PHP to use the variable having \nthat name. Consider an example: \n<? \n$somevar = 15; \nfunction addit() { \nGLOBAL $somevar; \n$somevar++; \nprint \"Somevar is $somevar\"; \n} \naddit(); \n?> \n \n \n \nThis will produce the following result. \nSomevar is 16 \nPHP Static V ariables"}


created_at: 2026-04-10 11:25:43
topic: persistent://default/default/dee56c3c-7959-41bf-8874-992339d36293
id: bd29da31-9897-43e1-b739-f3fce5562a46
encoding: FLOAT32
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{"company_id": "2", "course_id": "950", "lesson_id": "1230", "content_id": "1790", "file_name": "php tutorial_v1.pdf", "chroma:document": "Somevar is 16 \nPHP Static V ariables \nThe final type of variable scoping that I discuss is known as static. In contrast to the variables \ndeclared as function parameters, which are destroyed on the function's exit, a static variable \nwill not lose its value when the function exits and will still hold that value should the function \nbe called again. \n \nYou can declare a variable to be static simply by placing the keyword STATIC in front of the \nvariable name. \n<? \nfunction keep_track() {"}


created_at: 2026-04-10 11:25:43
topic: persistent://default/default/dee56c3c-7959-41bf-8874-992339d36293
id: bed58d45-1197-4b49-bd3b-35e8f8aad14a
encoding: FLOAT32
metadata:
{"company_id": "2", "course_id": "950", "lesson_id": "1230", "content_id": "1790", "file_name": "php tutorial_v1.pdf", "chroma:document": "variable name. \n<? \nfunction keep_track() { \n   STATIC $count = 0; \n   $count++; \n   print $count; \n   print \" \n\";    PHP \n35 \n \n} \nkeep_track(); \nkeep_track(); \nkeep_track(); \n?> \nThis will produce the following result. \n1 \n2 \n3 \n    PHP \n36 \n \nA constant is a name or an identifier for a simple value. A constant value cannot change \nduring the execution of the script. By default , a constant is case -sensitive. By convention,"}


created_at: 2026-04-10 11:25:43
topic: persistent://default/default/dee56c3c-7959-41bf-8874-992339d36293
id: 38352beb-92cb-4b4a-a255-f03372a9ad44
encoding: FLOAT32
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{"company_id": "2", "course_id": "950", "lesson_id": "1230", "content_id": "1790", "file_name": "php tutorial_v1.pdf", "chroma:document": "constant identifiers are always uppercase. A constant name starts with a letter or underscore, \nfollowed by any number of letters, numbers, or underscores. If you have defined a constant, \nit can never be changed or undefined. \n \nTo define a constant you have to use define() function and to retrieve the value of a constant, \nyou have to simply specifying its name. Unlike with variables, you do not need to have a"}


created_at: 2026-04-10 11:25:43
topic: persistent://default/default/dee56c3c-7959-41bf-8874-992339d36293
id: e6bfa368-0ead-4896-adb4-3e121ab4c0e3
encoding: FLOAT32
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{"company_id": "2", "course_id": "950", "lesson_id": "1230", "content_id": "1790", "file_name": "php tutorial_v1.pdf", "chroma:document": "constant with a $. You can also use the function constant() to read a constant's va lue if you \nwish to obtain the constant's name dynamically. \nconstant() function \nAs indicated by the name, this function will return the value of the constant. \n \nThis is useful when you want to retrieve value of a constant, but you do not know its name, \ni.e., it is stored in a variable or returned by a function. \nconstant() example \n<?php \n \ndefine(\"MINSIZE\", 50); \n \necho MINSIZE;"}


created_at: 2026-04-10 11:25:43
topic: persistent://default/default/dee56c3c-7959-41bf-8874-992339d36293
id: bb6b0711-7a2c-428e-885d-e835f1f372ea
encoding: FLOAT32
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{"company_id": "2", "course_id": "950", "lesson_id": "1230", "content_id": "1790", "file_name": "php tutorial_v1.pdf", "chroma:document": "<?php \n \ndefine(\"MINSIZE\", 50); \n \necho MINSIZE; \necho constant(\"MINSIZE\"); // same thing as the previous line \n \n?> \nOnly scalar data (boolean, integer, float and string) can be contained in constants. \nDifferences between constants and variables are \n\uf0b7 There is no need to write a dollar sign ($) before a constant, where as in Variable one \nhas to write a dollar sign. \n \n\uf0b7 Constants cannot be defined by simple assignment, they may only be defined using \nthe define() function."}


created_at: 2026-04-10 11:25:43
topic: persistent://default/default/dee56c3c-7959-41bf-8874-992339d36293
id: f3431624-b471-4f43-87b4-bdceed30cab5
encoding: FLOAT32
metadata:
{"company_id": "2", "course_id": "950", "lesson_id": "1230", "content_id": "1790", "file_name": "php tutorial_v1.pdf", "chroma:document": "the define() function. \n \n\uf0b7 Constants may be defined and accessed anywhere without regard to variable scoping \nrules. \n PHP \u2500 CONSTANTS    PHP \n37 \n \n \n\uf0b7 Once the Constants have been set, may not be redefined or undefined. \n \nValid and invalid constant names \n// Valid constant names \ndefine(\"ONE\",     \"first thing\"); \ndefine(\"TWO2\",    \"second thing\"); \ndefine(\"THREE_3\", \"third thing\") \n// Invalid constant names \ndefine(\"2TWO\",    \"second thing\"); \ndefine(\"__THREE__\", \"third value\");"}


created_at: 2026-04-10 11:25:43
topic: persistent://default/default/dee56c3c-7959-41bf-8874-992339d36293
id: c3b5ed53-390a-4082-93d8-ff1c7192c28f
encoding: FLOAT32
metadata:
{"company_id": "2", "course_id": "950", "lesson_id": "1230", "content_id": "1790", "file_name": "php tutorial_v1.pdf", "chroma:document": "define(\"__THREE__\", \"third value\");  \nPHP Magic constants \nPHP provides a large number of predefined constants to any script which it runs. \n \nThere are five magical constants that change depending on where they are used. For example, \nthe value of __LINE__ depends on the line that it's used on in your script. These special \nconstants are case-insensitive and are as follows: \n \nThe following table lists a few \"magical\" PHP constants along with their description:  \n \nName Description"}


created_at: 2026-04-10 11:25:43
topic: persistent://default/default/dee56c3c-7959-41bf-8874-992339d36293
id: 0b53ea17-5311-4731-b68f-c94c46f3b59a
encoding: FLOAT32
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{"company_id": "2", "course_id": "950", "lesson_id": "1230", "content_id": "1790", "file_name": "php tutorial_v1.pdf", "chroma:document": "Name Description \n__LINE__ The current line number of the file. \n__FILE__ The full path and filename of the file. If used inside an include, the \nname of the included file is returned. Since PHP \n4.0.2, __FILE__ always contains an absolute path whereas in older \nversions it contained relative path under some circumstances. \n__FUNCTION__ The function name. (Added in PHP 4.3.0) As  of PHP 5 this constant \nreturns the function name as it was declared (case-sensitive). In PHP"}


created_at: 2026-04-10 11:25:43
topic: persistent://default/default/dee56c3c-7959-41bf-8874-992339d36293
id: 3febd9ca-4e0f-410b-adcf-af33af95abef
encoding: FLOAT32
metadata:
{"company_id": "2", "course_id": "950", "lesson_id": "1230", "content_id": "1790", "file_name": "php tutorial_v1.pdf", "chroma:document": "4 its value is always lowercased. \n__CLASS__ The class name. (Added in PHP 4.3.0) As of PHP 5 this constant \nreturns the class name as it was declared (case-sensitive). In PHP 4 \nits value is always lowercased. \n__METHOD__ The class method name. (Added in PHP 5.0.0) The method name is \nreturned as it was declared (case-sensitive).    PHP \n38 \n \nWhat is Operator? Simple answer can be given using expression  4 + 5 is equal to 9. Here"}


created_at: 2026-04-10 11:25:43
topic: persistent://default/default/dee56c3c-7959-41bf-8874-992339d36293
id: 199b80af-3ce6-48c6-8b66-9ae1341e8146
encoding: FLOAT32
metadata:
{"company_id": "2", "course_id": "950", "lesson_id": "1230", "content_id": "1790", "file_name": "php tutorial_v1.pdf", "chroma:document": "4 and 5 are called operands and + is called operator. PHP language supports following type \nof operators. \n \n\uf0b7 Arithmetic Operators \n \n\uf0b7 Comparison Operators \n \n\uf0b7 Logical (or Relational) Operators \n \n\uf0b7 Assignment Operators \n \n\uf0b7 Conditional (or ternary) Operators \n \nLet\u2019s have a look on all operators one by one. \nArithmetic Operators  \nThe following arithmetic operators are supported by PHP language: \n \nAssume variable A holds 10 and variable B holds 20 then: \n \nOperator Description Example"}


created_at: 2026-04-10 11:25:43
topic: persistent://default/default/dee56c3c-7959-41bf-8874-992339d36293
id: 06d3d810-b3f7-46da-a0fa-30d8b9e08f72
encoding: FLOAT32
metadata:
{"company_id": "2", "course_id": "950", "lesson_id": "1230", "content_id": "1790", "file_name": "php tutorial_v1.pdf", "chroma:document": "Operator Description Example \n+ Adds two operands A + B will give 30 \n- Subtracts second operand from the first A - B will give -10 \n* Multiply both operands A * B will give 200 \n/ Divide the numerator by denominator B / A will give 2 \n% Modulus Operator and remainder of after an \ninteger division \nB % A will give 0 \n++ Increment operator, increases integer value by \none \nA++ will give 11 \n-- Decrement operator, decreases integer value \nby one \nA-- will give 9 \n \n PHP \u2500 OPERATOR TYPES    PHP"}


created_at: 2026-04-10 11:25:43
topic: persistent://default/default/dee56c3c-7959-41bf-8874-992339d36293
id: 46983801-9a2b-475c-982d-dc72869a61bf
encoding: FLOAT32
metadata:
{"company_id": "2", "course_id": "950", "lesson_id": "1230", "content_id": "1790", "file_name": "php tutorial_v1.pdf", "chroma:document": "A-- will give 9 \n \n PHP \u2500 OPERATOR TYPES    PHP \n39 \n \nExample \nTry the following example to understand all the arithmetic operators. Copy and paste following \nPHP program in test.php file and  keep it in your PHP Server's document root and browse it \nusing any browser. \n \n<html> \n<head><title>Arithmetical Operators</title><head> \n<body> \n<?php \n    $a = 42; \n    $b = 20; \n     \n    $c = $a + $b; \n    echo \"Addition Operation Result: $c <br/>\"; \n    $c = $a - $b;"}


created_at: 2026-04-10 11:25:43
topic: persistent://default/default/dee56c3c-7959-41bf-8874-992339d36293
id: c8858cf5-ae02-47d8-9f4b-850975b62f93
encoding: FLOAT32
metadata:
{"company_id": "2", "course_id": "950", "lesson_id": "1230", "content_id": "1790", "file_name": "php tutorial_v1.pdf", "chroma:document": "$c = $a - $b; \n    echo \"Subtraction Operation Result: $c <br/>\"; \n    $c = $a * $b; \n    echo \"Multiplication Operation Result: $c <br/>\"; \n    $c = $a / $b; \n    echo \"Division Operation Result: $c <br/>\"; \n    $c = $a % $b; \n    echo \"Modulus Operation Result: $c <br/>\"; \n    $c = $a++;  \n    echo \"Increment Operation Result: $c <br/>\"; \n    $c = $a--;  \n    echo \"Decrement Operation Result: $c <br/>\"; \n?> \n</body> \n</html> \nThis will produce the following result:"}


created_at: 2026-04-10 11:25:43
topic: persistent://default/default/dee56c3c-7959-41bf-8874-992339d36293
id: 1c79f00c-0e57-4ef4-810e-9fc7c8fc4fdc
encoding: FLOAT32
metadata:
{"company_id": "2", "course_id": "950", "lesson_id": "1230", "content_id": "1790", "file_name": "php tutorial_v1.pdf", "chroma:document": "</html> \nThis will produce the following result: \nAddition Operation Result: 62 \nSubtraction Operation Result: 22 \nMultiplication Operation Result: 840 \nDivision Operation Result: 2.1    PHP \n40 \n \nModulus Operation Result: 2 \nIncrement Operation Result: 42 \nDecrement Operation Result: 43 \n     PHP \n41 \n \nEnd of ebook preview \nIf you liked what you saw\u2026 \nBuy it from our store @ https://store.tutorialspoint.com"}


# embedding_metadata

key: chroma:document
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White Paper
Introduction to Cloud Computing Introduction to Cloud Computing
2
White Paper
Executive Summary
A common understanding of “cloud computing” is continuously evolving, and the terminology and concepts used to define it often 
need clarifying. Press coverage can be vague or may not fully capture the extent of what cloud computing entails or represents, 
sometimes reporting how companies are making their solutions available in the “cloud” or how “cloud computing” is the way


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forward, but not examining the characteristics, models, and services involved in understanding what cloud computing is and what 
it can become.
This white paper introduces internet-based cloud computing, exploring the characteristics, service models, and deployment models 
in use today, as well as the benefits and challenges associated with cloud computing. Also discussed are the communications


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services in the cloud (including ways to access the cloud, such as web APIs and media control interfaces) and the importance of 
scalability and flexibility in a cloud-based environment. 
Also noted for businesses desiring to start using communication services, are the interface choices available, including Web 2.0 
APIs, media control interfaces, Java interfaces, and XML based interfaces, catering to a wide range of application and service 
creation developers. Introduction to Cloud Computing


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3
White Paper
Table of Contents
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .4
Cloud Computing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .4


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Characteristics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .4
Service Models  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .5
Deployment Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .5


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Benefits  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .6
Challenges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .6
Communications in the Cloud . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .6


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Using the Communications Services . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .7
Accessing through Web APIs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .7
Media Server Control Interfaces  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .7


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Communications Scalability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .8
Getting Started with Communications Services  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .8 Introduction to Cloud Computing
4
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Introduction


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4
White Paper
Introduction
This white paper is an introduction to the terms, characteristics, and services associated with internet-based computing, commonly referred to as 
cloud computing  . Characteristics, such as infrastructure, provisioning, network access, and managed metering are presented  . 
The primary business service models being deployed (such as software, platform, and infrastructure as a service) and common deployment


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models employed by service providers and users to use and maintain the cloud services (such as the private, public, community, and hybrid 
clouds) are discussed  . 
Also introduced are the benefits and challenges associated with cloud computing, and for those seeking to use communications services in the 
cloud, briefly presented are different ways of determining the interfaces needed to use these communications services  .
Cloud Computing


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Cloud Computing
The term “cloud”, as used in this white paper, appears to have its origins in network diagrams that represented the internet, or various parts of 
it, as schematic clouds  . “Cloud computing” was coined for what happens when applications and services are moved into the internet “cloud  .” 
Cloud computing is not something that suddenly appeared overnight; in some form, it may trace back to a time when computer systems remotely


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time-shared computing resources and applications  . More currently though, cloud computing refers to the many different types of services and 
applications being delivered in the internet cloud, and the fact that, in many cases, the devices used to access these services and applications 
do not require any special applications  . 
Many companies are delivering services from the cloud  . Some notable examples include the following:


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•  Google — Has a private cloud that it uses for delivering Google Docs and many other services to its users, including email access, document 
applications, text translations, maps, web analytics, and much more . 
•  Microsoft — Has Microsoft
® Office 365® online service that allows for content and business intelligence tools to be moved into the cloud, and 
Microsoft currently makes its office applications available in a cloud .


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•  Salesforce.com — Runs its application set for its customers in a cloud, and its Force .com and Vmforce .com products provide developers with 
platforms to build customized cloud services .
But, what is cloud computing? The following sections note cloud and cloud computing characteristics, services models, deployment models, 
benefits, and challenges .
Characteristics
Cloud computing has a variety of characteristics, with the main ones being:


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•  Shared Infrastructure — Uses a virtualized software model, enabling the sharing of physical services, storage, and networking capabilities . The 
cloud infrastructure, regardless of deployment model, seeks to make the most of the available infrastructure across a number of users .
•  Dynamic Provisioning — Allows for the provision of services based on current demand requirements . This is done automatically using software


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automation, enabling the expansion and contraction of service capability, as needed . This dynamic scaling needs to be done while maintaining 
high levels of reliability and security .
•  Network Access — Needs to be accessed across the internet from a broad range of devices such as PCs, laptops, and mobile devices, 
using standards-based APIs (for example, ones based on HTTP) . Deployments of services in the cloud include everything from using business


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applications to the latest application on the newest smartphones . 
•  Managed Metering — Uses metering for managing and optimizing the service and to provide reporting and billing information . In this way, 
consumers are billed for services according to how much they have actually used during the billing period . 
In short, cloud computing allows for the sharing and scalable deployment of services, as needed, from almost any location, and for which the


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customer can be billed based on actual usage  .  Introduction to Cloud Computing
5
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Service Models 
Once a cloud is established, how its cloud computing services are deployed in terms of business models can differ depending on requirements  . 
The primary service models being deployed (see Figure 1) are commonly known as:
•  Software as a Service (SaaS) — Consumers purchase the ability to access and use an application or service that is hosted in the cloud . A


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benchmark example of this is Salesforce .com, as discussed previously, where necessary information for the interaction between the consumer and 
the service is hosted as part of the service in the cloud . 
Also, Microsoft has made a significant investment in this area, and as part of the cloud computing option for Microsoft
® Office 365, its Office suite 
is available as a subscription through its cloud-based Online Services  .


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•  Platform as a Service (PaaS) — Consumers purchase access to the platforms, enabling them to deploy their own software and applications in 
the cloud . The operating systems and network access are not managed by the consumer, and there might be constraints as to which applications 
can be deployed . Examples include Amazon Web Services (AWS), Rackspace and Microsoft Azure .


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•  Infrastructure as a Service (IaaS) — Consumers control and manage the systems in terms of the operating systems, applications, storage, and 
network connectivity, but do not themselves control the cloud infrastructure .
Also known are the various subsets of these models that may be related to a particular industry or market  . Communications as a Service (CaaS) is


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one such subset model used to describe hosted IP telephony services  . Along with the move to CaaS is a shift to more IP-centric communications 
and more SIP trunking deployments  . With IP and SIP in place, it can be as easy to have the PBX in the cloud as it is to have it on the premise  . In 
this context, CaaS could be seen as a subset of SaaS  .
Figure 1. Service Model Types
Deployment Models


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Figure 1. Service Model Types
Deployment Models
Deploying cloud computing can differ depending on requirements, and the following four deployment models have been identified, each with 
specific characteristics that support the needs of the services and users of the clouds in particular ways (see Figure 2)  .
•  Private Cloud — The cloud infrastructure has been deployed, and is maintained and operated for a specific organization . The operation may be


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in-house or with a third party on the premises . 
•  Community Cloud — The cloud infrastructure is shared among a number of organizations with similar interests and requirements . This may help 
limit the capital expenditure costs for its establishment as the costs are shared among the organizations . The operation may be in-house or with 
a third party on the premises .


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a third party on the premises . 
•  Public Cloud — The cloud infrastructure is available to the public on a commercial basis by a cloud service provider . This enables a consumer to 
develop and deploy a service in the cloud with very little financial outlay compared to the capital expenditure requirements normally associated 
with other deployment options .


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with other deployment options . 
•  Hybrid Cloud — The cloud infrastructure consists of a number of clouds of any type, but the clouds have the ability through their interfaces to 
allow data and/or applications to be moved from one cloud to another . This can be a combination of private and public clouds that support the 
requirement to retain some data in an organization, and also the need to offer services in the cloud .


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Enduser application is delivered as a service. Platform and infrastructure is abstracted, and 
can deployed and managed with less effort.
Physical infrastructure is abstracted to provide computing, storage, and networking as a 
service, avoiding the expense and need for dedicated systems.
Software as a Service (SaaS)
Application platform onto which custom applications and services can be deployed. Can be 
built and deployed more inexpensively, although services need to be supported and managed.


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Platform as a Service (PaaS)
Infrastructure as a Service (IaaS) Introduction to Cloud Computing
6
White Paper
Figure 2. Public, Private, and Hybrid Cloud Deployment Example
Benefits
The following are some of the possible benefits for those who offer cloud computing-based services and applications: 
•  Cost Savings — Companies can reduce their capital expenditures and use operational expenditures for increasing their computing capabilities .


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This is a lower barrier to entry and also requires fewer in-house IT resources to provide system support .
•  Scalability/Flexibility — Companies can start with a small deployment and grow to a large deployment fairly rapidly, and then scale back if 
necessary . Also, the flexibility of cloud computing allows companies to use extra resources at peak times, enabling them to satisfy consumer 
demands .


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demands . 
•  Reliability — Services using multiple redundant sites can support business continuity and disaster recovery .
•  Maintenance — Cloud service providers do the system maintenance, and access is through APIs that do not require application installations onto 
PCs, thus further reducing maintenance requirements .
•  Mobile Accessible — Mobile workers have increased productivity due to systems accessible in an infrastructure available from anywhere .
Challenges


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Challenges
The following are some of the notable challenges associated with cloud computing, and although some of these may cause a slowdown when 
delivering more services in the cloud, most also can provide opportunities, if resolved with due care and attention in the planning stages  .
•  Security and Privacy — Perhaps two of the more “hot button” issues surrounding cloud computing relate to storing and securing data, and


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monitoring the use of the cloud by the service providers . These issues are generally attributed to slowing the deployment of cloud services . These 
challenges can be addressed, for example, by storing the information internal to the organization, but allowing it to be used in the cloud . For 
this to occur, though, the security mechanisms between organization and the cloud need to be robust and a Hybrid cloud could support such a 
deployment .


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deployment . 
•  Lack of Standards — Clouds have documented interfaces; however, no standards are associated with these, and thus it is unlikely that most 
clouds will be interoperable . The Open Grid Forum is developing an Open Cloud Computing Interface to resolve this issue and the Open Cloud 
Consortium is working on cloud computing standards and practices . The findings of these groups will need to mature, but it is not known whether


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they will address the needs of the people deploying the services and the specific interfaces these services need . However, keeping up to date on 
the latest standards as they evolve will allow them to be leveraged, if applicable . 
•  Continuously Evolving — User requirements are continuously evolving, as are the requirements for interfaces, networking, and storage . This 
means that a “cloud,” especially a public one, does not remain static and is also continuously evolving .


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•  Compliance Concerns — The Sarbanes-Oxley Act (SOX) in the US and Data Protection directives in the EU are just two among many compliance 
issues affecting cloud computing, based on the type of data and application for which the cloud is being used . The EU has a legislative backing 
for data protection across all member states, but in the US data protection is different and can vary from state to state . As with security and privacy


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mentioned previously, these typically result in Hybrid cloud deployment with one cloud storing the data internal to the organization . 
Communications in the Cloud
For service developers, making services available in the cloud depends on the type of service and the device(s) being used to access it . The process 
may be as simple as a user clicking on the required web page, or could involve an application using an API accessing the services in the cloud  . 
Enterprise
 Public internet


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Enterprise
 Public internet
Private cloud in 
enterprise
Enterprise 1
Clous services
Public cloud
Enterprise 2
Hybrid Cloud - 
Combining Public Internet
a Private and Public Cloud Introduction to Cloud Computing
7
White Paper
Telcos are starting to use clouds to release their own services and those developed by others, but using Telco infrastructure and data  . The 
expectation is that the Telco’s communications infrastructure provides a revenue generating opportunity  .


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Using the Communications Services
When in the cloud, communications services can extend their capabilities, or stand alone as service offerings, or provide new interactivity 
capabilities to current services  .
Cloud-based communications services enable businesses to embed communications capabilities into business applications, such as Enterprise 
Resource Planning (ERP) and Customer Relationship Management (CRM) systems  . For “on the move” business people, these can be accessed


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through a smartphone, supporting increased productivity while away from the office  . 
These services are over and above the support of service deployments of VoIP systems, collaboration systems, and conferencing systems for 
both voice and video  . They can be accessed from any location and linked into current services to extend their capabilities, as well as stand alone 
as service offerings  .


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as service offerings  .
In terms of social networking, using cloud-based communications provides click-to-call capabilities from social networking sites, access to Instant 
Messaging systems and video communications, broadening the interlinking of people within the social circle  . 
Accessing through Web APIs
Accessing communications capabilities in a cloud-based environment is achieved through APIs, primarily Web 2  .0 RESTful APIs, allowing


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application development outside the cloud to take advantage of the communication infrastructure within it (see Figure 3)  .
Figure 3. Web 2.0 Interfaces to the Cloud
These APIs open up a range of communications possibilities for cloud-based services, only limited by the media and signaling capabilities within 
the cloud . Today’s media services allow for communications and management of voice and video across a complex range of codecs and transport


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types  . By using the Web APIs, these complexities can be simplified and the media can be delivered to the remote device more easily  . APIs also 
enable communication of other services, providing new opportunities and helping to drive Average Revenue per User (ARPU) and attachment 
rates, especially for Telcos  . 
Media Server Control Interfaces
When building communications capabilities into the “core of the cloud,” where they will be accessed by another service, the Web 2  .0 APIs


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can be used, as well as a combination of SIP or VoiceXML and the standard media controlling APIs such as MSML, MSCML, and JSR309  . The 
combinations provide different capability sets, but with MediaCTRL being developed in the Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF), it is expected 
that MediaCTRL will supersede MSML and MSCML and have an upsurge in availability and more developments after it is ratified  . JSR309 is a


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notable choice for those seeking Java development, as it provides the Java interface to media control  .
Figure 4 is an example of accessing services in the cloud through Web 2  .0 and media control interface APIs  .
Cloud-based service
Media and signaling 
capabilities
Web 2.0 
interface
 Introduction to Cloud Computing
8
White Paper
Figure 4. Accessing the Communications Capabilities from Within the Cloud


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Whether businesses are deploying communications services for access from outside of or within the cloud, the environment is one that supports 
the speedy development and rollout of these capabilities  .
Communications Scalability
To deliver on the scalability requirements for cloud-based deployments, the communications software should be capable of running in virtual


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environments  . This allows for easily increasing and decreasing session densities based on the needs at the time, while keeping the physical 
resource requirement on servers to a minimum  .
Getting Started with Communications Services
Businesses desiring to use the communications capabilities of cloud-based services will stand to benefit by determining the right interfaces  .


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Dialogic supports a broad range of interfaces, including RESTful APIs, media control interfaces, Java interfaces, and XML-based interfaces, 
catering to a wide range of application and service creation developers  . These interfaces, available over media and signaling capabilities, support 
the scalability needed in a cloud-based environment while still being easy to deploy and administer  .
Cloud-based service
Media and 
signaling
Application 
server
Web 2.0 
interface


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signaling
Application 
server
Web 2.0 
interface
Application server controls media server 
through media control APIs or Web 2.0 www.dialogic.com
For a list of Dialogic locations and offices, please visit: https://www  .dialogic  .com/contact  .
INFORMATION IN THIS DOCUMENT IS PROVIDED IN CONNECTION WITH PRODUCTS OF DIALOGIC CORPORATION AND ITS AFFILIATES OR SUBSIDIARIES (“DIALOGIC”)  . NO LICENSE,


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EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, BY ESTOPPEL OR OTHERWISE, TO ANY INTELLECTUAL PROPERTY RIGHTS IS GRANTED BY THIS DOCUMENT  . EXCEPT AS PROVIDED IN A SIGNED AGREEMENT 
BETWEEN YOU AND DIALOGIC, DIALOGIC ASSUMES NO LIABILITY WHATSOEVER, AND DIALOGIC DISCLAIMS ANY EXPRESS OR IMPLIED WARRANTY, RELATING TO SALE AND/OR USE 
OF DIALOGIC PRODUCTS INCLUDING LIABILITY OR WARRANTIES RELATING TO FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE, MERCHANTABILITY, OR INFRINGEMENT OF ANY INTELLECTUAL 
PROPERTY RIGHT OF A THIRD PARTY  .


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PROPERTY RIGHT OF A THIRD PARTY  .
Dialogic products are not intended for use in certain safety-affecting situations  .  Please see http://www  .dialogic  .com/company/terms-of-use  .aspx for more details  .
Dialogic may make changes to specifications, product descriptions, and plans at any time, without notice  .


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Dialogic is a registered trademark of Dialogic Corporation and its affiliates or subsidiaries  . Dialogic’s trademarks may be used publicly only with permission from Dialogic  . Such permission 
may only be granted by Dialogic’s legal department at 3300 Boulevard de la Côte-Vertu, Suite 112, Montreal, Quebec, Canada H4R 1P8  . Any authorized use of Dialogic’s trademarks will be


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subject to full respect of the trademark guidelines published by Dialogic from time to time and any use of Dialogic’s trademarks requires proper acknowledgement  .
The names of actual companies and products mentioned herein are the trademarks of their respective owners  . Dialogic encourages all users of its products to procure all necessary 
intellectual property licenses required to implement their concepts or applications, which licenses may vary from country to country  .


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Any use case(s) shown and/or described herein represent one or more examples of the various ways, scenarios or environments in which Dialogic
® products can be used  .  Such use case(s) are 
non-limiting and do not represent recommendations of Dialogic as to whether or how to use Dialogic products  . 
Copyright © 2017 Dialogic Corporation  .  All rights reserved  . 10/17    12023-02


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Welcome to the course on English grammar for Office Communication. Communication is the heart and soul of the human experience. The process of communication mainly includes speaking, listening and writing. It is a natural phenomenon that we start speaking what everybody speaks around us. We gradually develop a better sense of understanding with the passage of time. A good knowledge of grammar gives us a competitive edge in the business situations. Grammar is a study of words and the way words


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Grammar is a study of words and the way words work together. There are eight parts of speech they are noun, pronoun, verb, adverb, interjection, conjunction, preposition and adjective. This unit will enable you to identify a noun in the sentence, point out a pronoun and outline an adjective. Let us start this unit with the basic part of speech. noun what is a noun? Why is it used? What are its classifications? Look around you. What do you see? A computer, the living room, your dad, everything


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A computer, the living room, your dad, everything that you see you can name is a noun. There are four kinds of nouns. Common nouns, proper nouns, abstract nouns and collective noun. Click on each of these nouns to know more. Here is a list of some proper and their corresponding common nouns. Let us now try to identify the nouns in a sentence. This is my dog. It lives in my house. We live in London. Here, dog and house refers to a thing and London refers to the place. Hence, these are nouns.


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refers to the place. Hence, these are nouns. Joseph Priestley discovered oxygen. Here, there are two nouns. Joseph Priestley and oxygen.


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Oxford University Press
Walton Street, Oxford 0X2 6DP
Oxford New York
Auckland Bangkok Buenos Aires Cape Town
Chennai Dar es Salaam Delhi Hong Kong Istanbul
Karachi Kolkata Kuala Lumpur Madrid Melbourne
Mexico City Mumbai Nairobi São Paulo Shanghai
Singapore Taipei Tokyo Toronto
with an associated company in Berlin
OXFORD and OXFORD ENGLISH
are trade marks of Oxford University Press
ISBN 0 19 431351 4 (paperback)
ISBN 0 19 431334 4 (hardback)
© Oxford University Press 1994
First published 1994


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First published 1994
Seventh impression 2002
No unauthorized photocopying
All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be
reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in
any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical,
photocopying, recording, or otherwise, without the prior
written permission of Oxford University Press.
This book is sold subject to the condition that it shall not,
by way of trade or otherwise, be lent, resold, hired out, or


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otherwise circulated without the publisher's prior consent
in any form of binding or cover other than that in which it is
published and without a similar condition including this
condition being imposed on the subsequent purchaser.
Illustrated by Heather Clarke
Typeset in Utopia by
Tradespools Ltd, Frome, Somerset
Printed in Hong Kong Contents
Introduction VII
Acknowledgements VIII
Key to symbols IX
Sentence and text
1 English grammar 1
2 The simple sentence 6


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1 English grammar 1
2 The simple sentence 6
3 Statements, questions, imperatives and exclamations 15
4 Questions and answers 25
5 Leaving out and replacing words 42
6 Information and emphasis 52
7 Spoken English and written English 64
Verb forms
8 The verb phrase 75
9 Verb tenses and aspects 82
10 The future 95
11 Be, have and do 104
12 Modal verbs 113
13 The passive 130
Infinitive, gerund and participles
14 The infinitive 144
15 The gerund 159
16 Participles 167
The noun phrase


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16 Participles 167
The noun phrase
17 Nouns and noun phrases 175
18 Agreement 191
19 The articles: a/an and the 198
20 Possessives and demonstratives 213
21 Quantifiers 219
22 Pronouns 233
23 Numbers and measurements 245
Adjectives, adverbs and prepositions
24 Adjectives 251
25 Adverbials 260
26 Comparison 278
27 Prepositions 286
28 Phrasal verbs and patterns with prepositions 302
Main clauses and sub clauses
29 Sentences with more than one clause 317


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29 Sentences with more than one clause 317
30 And, or, but, so etc 323 31 Adverbial clauses 327
32 Conditional clauses 333
33 Noun clauses 341
34 Direct and indirect speech 346
35 Relative clauses 356
Word forms
36 Word-building 367
37 Word endings: pronunciation and spelling 376
38 Irregular noun plurals 380
39 Irregular verb forms 382
Appendix
40 American English 389
Glossary 397
Index 404 Introduction
The Oxford Guide to English Grammar is a systematic account of grammatical


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forms and the way they are used in standard British English today. The emphasis is
on meanings and how they govern the choice of grammatical pattern.
The book is thorough in its coverage but pays most attention to points that are of
importance to intermediate and advanced learners of English, and to their
teachers. It will be found equally suitable for quick reference to details and for the
more leisured study of broad grammar topics.


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more leisured study of broad grammar topics.
A useful feature of the book is the inclusion of example texts and conversations,
many of them authentic, to show how grammar is used in connected writing and
in speech.
Language changes all the time. Even though grammar changes more slowly than
vocabulary, it is not a set of unalterable rules. There are sometimes disagreements
about what is correct English and what is incorrect. 'Incorrect' grammar is often


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used in informal speech. Does that make it acceptable? Where there is a difference
between common usage and opinions about correctness, I have pointed this out.
This information is important for learners. In some situations it may be safer for
them to use the form which is traditionally seen as correct. The use of a correct
form in an unsuitable context, however, can interfere with understanding just as
much as a mistake. To help learners to use language which is appropriate for a


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given occasion, I have frequently marked usages as formal, informal, literary
and so on.
How to use this book
Any user of a reference book of this kind will rely on a full and efficient index, as is
provided in the Oxford Guide (pages 404 to 446). In addition, there is a summary at
the beginning of each chapter which gives a bird's eye view, with examples, of the
grammar covered in the chapter as a whole and gives references to the individual
sections which follow.
VII VIII
Acknowledgements


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sections which follow.
VII VIII
Acknowledgements
The author and publisher would like to thank all the teachers in the United
Kingdom and Italy who discussed this book in the early stages of its development.
We are also grateful to John Algeo, Sharon Hilles and Thomas Lavelle for their
contributions to the chapter on American English and to Rod Bolitho, Sheila
Eastwood and Henry Widdowson for their help and advice.
In addition, we would like to thank the following, who have kindly given their


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permission for the use of copyright material: Bridgwater Mercury; Cambridge
University Press; Consumers' Association, London, UK; Fodor; Ladybird Books;
The Mail on Sunday; Nicholson; Octopus Books; Rogers, Coleridge and White;
Mary Underwood and Pauline Barr.
There are instances where we have been unable to trace or contact copyright
holders before our printing deadline. If notified, the publisher will be pleased to
acknowledge the use of copyright material. IX
Key to symbols
Phonetic symbols


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Key to symbols
Phonetic symbols
house
must
next
song
love
rest
you
will
first
van
three
this
sell
zoo
ship
pleasure
put
best
tell
day
cat
good
cheese
just
bird
away
pay
so
cry
now
boy
dear
chair
sure
tea
sit
ten
had
car
dog
ball
book
fool
cup
(r) four
four apples
four bananas
linking r, pronounced before a vowel but (in British English) not
pronounced before a consonant
stress follows, e.g. about
falling intonation rising intonation
Other symbols


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Other symbols
The symbol / (oblique stroke) between two words or phrases means that either is
possible. I will be/shall be at home tomorrow means that two sentences are
possible: I will be at home tomorrow and I shall be at home tomorrow.
We also use an oblique stroke around phonetic symbols, e.g. tea
Brackets ( ) around a word or phrase in an example mean that it can be left out.
I've been here (for) ten minutes means that two sentences are possible: I've been


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here for ten minutes and I've been here ten minutes.
The symbol means that two things are related. Discuss discussion means
that there is a relationship between the verb discuss and the noun discussion.
The symbol ~ means that there is a change of speaker.
The symbol
there is more information. For example,
is a reference to another section and/or part of a section where
(2) means part 2 of the same section;
229(3) means part 3 of section 229.65 means section 65; and 1
English grammar
1 Summary


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English grammar
1 Summary
Grammatical units • 2
The grammatical units of English are these: word, phrase, clause and sentence.
Word classes • 3
The main word classes are these: verb, noun, adjective, adverb, preposition,
determiner, pronoun and conjunction.
Phrases • 4
There are these kinds of phrase: verb phrase, noun phrase, adjective phrase,
adverb phrase and prepositional phrase.
Sentence elements • 5
The sentence elements are these: subject, verb, object, complement and adverbial.


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English compared with other languages • 6
English words do nor have a lot of different endings for number and gender.
Word order is very important in English.
The verb phrase can have a complex structure.
There are many idioms with prepositions.
2 Grammatical units
A FLIGHT ANNOUNCEMENT
'Good evening, ladies and gentlemen. On behalf of British Island Airways, Captain
Massey and his crew welcome you on board the Start Herald Flight to


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Southampton. Our flight time will be approximately forty-five minutes, and we
shall be climbing to an altitude of eight thousand feet and cruising at a speed of
two hundred and fifty miles per hour.'
(from M. Underwood and P. Barr Listeners)
The grammatical units of English are words, phrases, clauses and sentences.
1 Words
The words in the announcement are good, evening, ladies, and, gentlemen, on etc.
NOTE For word-building, e.g. air + ways= airways, • 282.
PAGE 1 1 ENGLISH GRAMMAR


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PAGE 1 1 ENGLISH GRAMMAR
2 Phrases and clauses
We use phrases to build a clause. Here is an example.
Subject Verb Complement
(noun phrase) (verb phrase) (noun phrase)
Our flight time will be approximately forty-five minutes.
Here the noun phrase our flight time is the subject of the clause. A clause has a
subject and a verb. There can be other phrases, too. In this next example we use a
prepositional phrase as an adverbial.
Adverbial Subject Verb Object Object


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Adverbial Subject Verb Object Object
(prepositional phrase) (noun phrase) (verb phrase) (noun phrase) (noun phrase)
On behalf of the airline we wish you a pleasant flight.
For more about the different kinds of phrases, • 4.
For subject, object, complement and adverbial, • 5.
For finite and non-finite clauses, • 239 (3).
3 Sentences
A sentence can be a single clause.
On behalf of British Island Airways, Captain Massey and his crew welcome you on
board the Start Herald flight to Southampton.


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board the Start Herald flight to Southampton.
A written sentence begins with a capital letter (On) and ends with a mark such as a
full stop.
We can also combine two or more clauses in one sentence. For example, we can
use and to link the clauses.
Our flight time will be approximately forty-five minutes, and we shall be climbing
to an altitude of eight thousand feet and cruising at a speed of two hundred and
fifty miles an hour.
For details about sentences with more than one clause, • 238.


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3 Word classes
1 There are different classes of word, sometimes called 'parts of speech'. The word
come is a verb, letter is a noun and great is an adjective.
NOTE
Some words belong to more than one word class. For example, test can be a noun or a verb.
He passed the test. (noun)
He had to test the machine. (verb) PAGE 3
2 There are eight main word classes in English.
Verb: climb, eat, welcome, be
Noun: aircraft, country, lady, hour
Adjective: good, British, cold, quick


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Adjective: good, British, cold, quick
Adverb: quickly, always, approximately
Preposition: to, of, at, on
Determiner: the, his, some, forty-five
Pronoun: we, you, them, myself
Conjunction: and, but, so
4 Phrases
NOTE There is also a small class of words called 'interjections'. They include oh, ah and mhm.
3 Verbs, nouns, adjectives and adverbs are 'vocabulary words'. Learning vocabulary
means learning verbs, nouns, adjectives and adverbs.


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Prepositions, determiners, pronouns and conjunctions belong to much smaller
classes. These words are sometimes called 'grammatical words'.
4 Most word classes can be divided into sub-classes. For example:
Verb Ordinary verb: go, like, think, apply
Auxiliary verb: is, had, can, must
Adverb Adverb of manner: suddenly, quickly
Adverb of frequency: always, often
Adverb of place: there, nearby
Linking adverb: too, also
etc
Determiner Article: a, the
Possessive: my, his
Demonstrative: this, that


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Possessive: my, his
Demonstrative: this, that
Quantifier: all, three
4 Phrases
There are five kinds of phrase.
1 Verb phrase: come, had thought, was left, will be climbing
A verb phrase has an ordinary verb (come, thought, left, climbing) and may also
have an auxiliary (had, was, will).
2 Noun phrase: a good flight, his crew, we
A noun phrase has a noun (flight), which usually has a determiner (a) and/or
adjective (good) in front of it. A noun phrase can also be a pronoun (we).


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3 Adjective phrase: pleasant, very late
An adjective phrase has an adjective, sometimes with an adverb of degree (very).
4 Adverb phrase: quickly, almost certainly
An adverb phrase has an adverb, sometimes with an adverb of degree (almost).
5 Prepositional phrase: after lunch, on the aircraft
A prepositional phrase is a preposition + noun phrase. 1 ENGLISH GRAMMAR PAGE 4
5 Sentence elements
1 Each phrase plays a part in the clause or sentence. Here are some examples.
Subject Verb Adverbial


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Subject Verb Adverbial
The flight is leaving shortly.
Subject Verb Complement
The weather is very good.
My father was a pilot.
Subject Verb Object
I was reading a newspaper.
Two stewards served lunch.
Subject Verb Object Adverbial
The aircraft left London at three o'clock.
We must book the tickets next week.
2 These are the elements of an English sentence and the kinds of phrase that we can
use for each element.
Subject Noun phrase: the flight, I, two stewards


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Subject Noun phrase: the flight, I, two stewards
Verb Verb phrase: is, served, must book
Object Noun phrase: a newspaper, lunch
Complement Adjective phrase: very good
Noun phrase: a pilot
Adverbial Adverb phrase: shortly
Prepositional phrase: at three o'clock
Noun phrase: next week
NOTE
a The verb is central to the sentence and we use the word 'verb' for both the sentence
element - 'The verb follows the subject' - and for the word class - 'Leave is a verb.'


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For more details about sentence patterns, • 7.
b The word there can be the subject. • 50
There was a letter for you.
6 English compared with other languages
1 Endings
Unlike words in some other languages, English words do not have a lot of different
endings. Nouns take s in the plural (miles), but they do not have endings to show
whether they are subject or object. PAGE 5 6 English compared with other languages
Verbs take a few endings such as ed for the past (started), but they do not take


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endings for person, except in the third person singular of the present tense
(it starts).
Articles (e.g. the), Possessives (e.g. my) and adjectives (e.g. good) do not have
endings for number or gender. Pronouns (e.g. lime) have fewer forms than in
many languages.
2 Word order
Word order is very important in English. As nouns do not have endings for subject
or object, it is the word order that shows which is which.
Subject Verb Object
The woman loved the man. (She loved him.)


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The woman loved the man. (She loved him.)
The man loved the woman. (He loved her.)
The subject-verb order is fixed, and we can change it only if there is a special
reason.
3 Verb phrases
A verb phrase can have a complex structure. There can be auxiliary verbs as well as
the ordinary verb.
I climbed up the ladder.
I was climbing the mountain.
We shall be climbing to an altitude of eight thousand feet.
The use of tenses and auxiliary verbs can be difficult for speakers of other
languages.


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languages.
4 Prepositions
The use of prepositions in English can be a problem.
We flew here on Friday. We left at two o'clock.
Both prepositions and adverbs combine with verbs in an idiomatic way.
They were waiting for the flight. The plane took off.
There are many expressions involving prepositions that you need to learn as items
of vocabulary. PAGE 6
2
The simple sentence
7 Summary
This story contains examples of different clause patterns.
AN UNLUCKY THIEF


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AN UNLUCKY THIEF
A man walked into a hotel, saw a nice coat, put it over his arm and walked out
again. Then he tried to hitch a lift out of town. While he was waiting, he put the
coat on. At last a coach stopped and gave him a lift. It was carrying forty detectives
on their way home from a conference on crime. One of them had recently become
a detective inspector. He recognized the coat. It was his. He had left it in the hotel,


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and it had gone missing. The thief gave the inspector his coat. The inspector
arrested him. 'It seemed a good idea at the time,' the man said. He thought himself
rather unlucky.
There are five elements that can be part of a clause. They are subject, verb, object,
complement and adverbial.
Basic clause patterns
Intransitive and transitive verbs • 8
Subject Intransitive verb
A coach stopped.
Subject Transitive verb Object
The detective arrested the thief.
Linking verbs • 9
Subject Verb Complement


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Linking verbs • 9
Subject Verb Complement
The thief was rather unlucky.
The detective became an inspector.
Subject Verb Adverbial
The coat was over his arm.
The conference is every year. PAGE 7 8 Intransitive and transitive verbs
Give, send etc • 10
Subject Verb Object Object
The thief gave the inspector his coat.
All these seven clause patterns contain a subject and verb in that order. The
elements that come after the verb depend on the type of verb: for example,


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whether it is transitive or not. Some verbs belong to more than one type. For
example, think can come in these three patterns.
Intransitive (without an object): I'm thinking.
Transitive (with an object): Yes, I thought the same.
With object and complement: People will think me stupid.
Extra adverbials • 12
We can always add an extra adverbial to a clause.
A man walked into a hotel.
One day a man walked casually into a hotel.
And and or • 13
We can join two phrases with and or or.


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We can join two phrases with and or or.
The inspector and the thief got out of the coach.
Phrases in apposition • 14
We can put one noun phrase after another.
Our neighbour Mr Bradshaw is a policeman.
8 Intransitive and transitive verbs
1 An intransitive verb cannot take an object, although there can be a prepositional
phrase after it.
The man was waiting at the side of the road.
Something unfortunate happened.
The man runs along the beach every morning.


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The man runs along the beach every morning.
Intransitive verbs usually express actions (people doing things) and events (things
happening).
A verb can be intransitive in one meaning and transitive in another. For example,
run is transitive when it means 'manage.
He runs his own business.
Subject Verb Object Complement
They called the inspector sir.
The thief thought himself rather unlucky.
Subject Verb Object Adverbial
He put the coat over his arm.
Call, put etc •11 2 THE SIMPLE SENTENCE PAGE 8


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Call, put etc •11 2 THE SIMPLE SENTENCE PAGE 8
2 A transitive verb takes an object.
The man stole a coat.
Everyone enjoyed the conference.
The driver saw the hitch-hiker at the side of the road.
The man had no money.
Transitive verbs can express not only actions (stole) but also feelings (enjoyed),
perception (saw) and possession (had).
After some transitive verbs we can leave out the object when it would add little or
nothing to the meaning.


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nothing to the meaning.
The man opposite was reading (a book). We're going to eat (a meal).
A woman was driving (the coach).
We can also leave out the object after these verbs:
ask/answer (a question), draw/paint (a picture), enter/leave (a room/building),
pass/fail (a test/exam), play/win/lose (a game), practise (a skill), sing (a song),
speak (a few words), study (a subject).
The following verbs can also be without an object if the context is clear: begin,


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choose, decide, hear, help, know, notice, see, start.
NOTE
There must be an object after discuss and deny.
The committee discussed the problem. He denied the accusation.
3 Many verbs can be either transitive or intransitive.
Transitive Intransitive
The driver stopped the coach.
He opened the door.
I broke a cup.
Someone rang the bell.
The coach stopped.
The door opened.
The cup broke.
The bell rang.
The two sentences can describe the same event. The transitive sentence has as its


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subject the agent, the person who made the event happen (the driver). The
intransitive sentence describes the event but does not mention the agent.
Here are some common verbs that can be transitive or intransitive:
alter develop increase shine tear
begin divide join shut turn
bend drive melt slide weaken
boil dry mix smash unite
break end move soften
burn finish open sound
change fly pour spread
close freeze ring stand
cook hang roll start
combine harden sail stop


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cook hang roll start
combine harden sail stop
continue hurt separate strengthen
crash improve shake swing
NOTE
Raise is transitive, and rise is intransitive.
The oil companies will raise their prices.
The price of oil will rise.
For lay and lie, •11(2) Note b. PAGE 9 9 Linking verbs
9 Linking verbs
1 Linking verb + complement
A complement is an adjective phrase or a noun phrase. A complement relates to
the subject: it describes the subject or identifies it (says who or what it is). Between


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the subject and complement is a linking verb, e.g. be.
The hotel was quiet. The thief seemed depressed.
The book has become a best-seller. It's getting dark.
A week in the Lake District would make a nice break.
These are the most common verbs in this pattern.
+ adjective or noun phrase: appear, be, become, look, prove, remain, seem,
sound, stay
+ adjective: feel, get, go, grow, smell, taste, turn
+ noun phrase: make


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+ noun phrase: make
There are also some idiomatic expressions which are a linking verb + complement,
e.g. burn low, come good, come true, fall asleep, fall ill, fall silent, ring true, run dry,
run wild, wear thin.
We can use some linking verbs in other patterns.
Linking: Your garden looks nice.
Intransitive: We looked at the exhibition.
NOTE
a After seem, appear, look and sound, we use to be when the complement is a noun phrase
identifying the subject.


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identifying the subject.
The woman seemed to be Lord Melbury's secretary.
NOT The woman seemed Lord Melbury's secretary.
But we can leave out to be when the noun phrase gives other kinds of information.
The woman seemed (to be) a real expert.
For American usage, • 303(1).
b There is a special pattern where a complement occurs with an action verb, not
a linking verb.
We arrived exhausted.
He walked away a free man.
I came home really tired one evening.


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I came home really tired one evening.
We use this pattern in a very small number of contexts. We can express the same meaning
in two clauses: We were exhausted when we arrived.
2 Linking verb + adverbial
An adverbial can be an adverb phrase, prepositional phrase or noun phrase. An
adverbial after a linking verb relates to the subject. It often expresses place or time,
but it can have other meanings.
The coat was here. The conference is every year.
The drawings lay on the table. I'm on a diet.


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The drawings lay on the table. I'm on a diet.
Joan Collins lives in style. The parcel went by air.
Linking verbs with adverbials are be, go, lie, live, sit, stand and stay. 2 THE SIMPLE SENTENCE PAGE 10
10 Give, send etc
Verbs like give and send can have two objects, or they can have an object and an
adverbial. There are some examples in this conversation, which takes place in a
department store.
CLAIMING BACK TAX
Customer: I've bought these sweaters, and I'm taking them home to Brazil.


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I understand I can claim back the tax I pay.
Clerk: That's right. Have you filled in a form?
Customer: Yes, and I've got the receipts here.
Clerk: Right. Now, when you go through British Customs, you give the customs
officer the form with the receipts.
Customer: I give the form to the Customs when I leave Britain?
Clerk: That's right. They'll give you one copy back and keep one themselves.
Customer: Uh-huh.
Clerk: Now I'll give you this envelope. You send the copy back to us in the
envelope.


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envelope.
Customer: I post it to you.
Clerk: That's right.
Customer: And how do I get the money?
Clerk: Oh, we send you a cheque. We'll send it off to you straight away.
1 Two objects
When the verb has two objects, the first is the indirect object and the second is the
direct object.
Indirect object Direct object
You give the customs officer the form.
We send you a cheque.
The man bought the woman a diamond ring.
I can reserve you a seat.


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I can reserve you a seat.
Here the indirect object refers to the person receiving something, and the direct
object refers to the thing that is given.
2 Object + adverbial
Instead of an indirect object, we can use a prepositional phrase with to or for.
Direct object Prepositional
phrase
I give the form to the Customs.
You send the copy to us.
The man bought a diamond ring for the woman.
I can reserve a seat for you.
The adverbial comes after the object. PAGE 11 10 Give, send etc
3 Which pattern?


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3 Which pattern?
In a clause with give, send etc, there is a choice of pattern between give the customs
officer the form and give the form to the customs officer. The choice depends on
what information is new. The new information goes at the end of the clause.
I'll give you this envelope.
In the conversation Claiming back tax, this envelope is the point of interest, the
new information, so it comes at the end.
Compare the patterns in these sentences.
He left his children five million pounds.


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He left his children five million pounds.
(The amount of money is the point of interest.)
He left all his money to a dog's home.
(Who receives the money is the point of interest.)
NOTE
a The adverbial or indirect object is often necessary to complete the meaning.
He handed the receipt to the customer.
But sometimes it is not necessary to mention the person receiving something.
You'll have to show your ticket on the train.
(It is obvious that you show it to the ticket inspector.)


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I'm writing a letter.
(You don't want to say who you are writing to.)
b Most verbs of speech cannot take an indirect object, but we can use a phrase with to.
The man said nothing (to the police).
But tell almost always has an indirect object. • 266
The man told the police nothing.
4 Pronouns after give, send etc
When there is a pronoun, it usually comes before a phrase with a noun.
We send you a cheque.
He had lots of money, but he left it to a dogs' home.


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When there are two pronouns after the verb, we normally use to or for.
We'll send it off to you straight away.
I've got a ticket for Wimbledon. Norman bought it for me.
5 To or for?
Some verbs go with to and some with for.
He handed the receipt to the customer.
Tom got drinks for everyone.
With to: award, bring, feed, give, grant, hand, leave (in a will), lend, offer, owe, pass,
pay, post, promise, read, sell, send, show, take, teach, tell, throw, write.


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With for: bring, buy, cook, fetch, find, get, keep, leave, make, order, pick, reserve,
save, spare.
NOTE
a Bring goes with either to or for.
b For meaning 'to help someone' can go with very many verbs.
I'm writing a letter for my sister. (She can't write.) 2 THE SIMPLE SENTENCE
11 Call, put etc
1 Verb + object + complement
Compare these two kinds of complement.
Subject Subject Object Object
complement complement
The driver was tired. The journey made the driver tired.


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He became president. They elected him president.
The subject complement relates to the subject of the clause; • 9. The object
complement relates to the object of the clause. In both patterns tired relates to
the driver, and president relates to he/him.
Here are some more sentences with an object complement.
The thief thought himself rather unlucky. They called the dog Sasha.
The court found him guilty of robbery. We painted the walls bright yellow.
I prefer my soup hot.


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I prefer my soup hot.
Here are some verbs in this pattern.
With adjective or noun phrase: believe, call, consider, declare, find, keep, leave, like,
make, paint, prefer, prove, think, want
With adjective: drive, get, hold, pull, push, send, turn
With noun phrase: appoint, elect, name, vote
2 Verb + object + adverbial
The adverbial in this pattern typically expresses place.
The man put the coat over his arm. We keep the car in the garage.


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He got the screw into the hole. The path led us through trees.
NOTE
a Leave can come in this pattern, but forget cannot.
I left my umbrella at home. But NOT I forgot my umbrella at home.
b Lay (past: laid) comes in the same pattern as put.
The woman laid a blanket on the ground.
Lie (past: lay) is a linking verb which takes an adverbial. • 9(2)
The woman lay in the sunshine.
12 Extra adverbials
1 Look at these clause patterns.
Subject Verb Adverbial
The conference is every year.


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The conference is every year.
Subject Verb Object Adverbial
He put the coat over his arm.
These adverbials cannot be left out. They are necessary to complete the sentence. PAGE 13 13 And and or
2 We can add extra adverbials to any of the clause patterns.
At last a coach stopped.
The coach was carrying detectives on their way home from a conference on crime.
He had recently become a detective inspector.
The conference is every year, presumably.
At once the thief gave the inspector his coat.


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At once the thief gave the inspector his coat.
He probably considered himself rather unlucky.
He casually put the coat over his arm.
These extra adverbials can be left out. They are not necessary to complete the
sentence.
For details about the position of adverbials, • 208. An extra adverbial does not
affect the word order in the rest of the sentence, and the subject-verb order stays
the same.
At last a coach stopped.
NOTE


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the same.
At last a coach stopped.
NOTE
Another extra element is the name or description of the person spoken to. As well as in
statements, it can come in questions and imperatives.
You're in trouble, my friend. Sarah, what are you doing?
Come on everybody, let's go!
13 And and or
1 We can link two or more phrases with and or or. Here are some examples with
noun phrases.
The man and the woman were waiting.
The man, the woman and the child were waiting.
Wednesday or Thursday would be all right.


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Wednesday or Thursday would be all right.
Wednesday, Thursday or Friday would be all right.
And or or usually comes only once, before the last item.
2 We can use and and or with other kinds of words and phrases.
It was a cold and windy day. (adjective)
He waited fifteen or twenty minutes. (number)
The work went smoothly, quietly and very efficiently. (adverb phrase)
NOTE
a We can use two adjectives together without a linking word, e.g. a cold, windy day. • 202


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b We can use two complements or two adverbials with and or or even if they are different
kinds of phrase, such as an adjective and noun phrase.
The book has become famous and a best-seller. We can meet here or in town.
The hotel was quiet and well back from the road.
3 Compare these two sentences.
He stole a hat and a coat.
He stole a hat and coat.
In the first sentence and links two noun phrases (a hat, a coat); in the second it


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links two nouns (hat, coat). The second sentence suggests that there is a link
between the two items, that they belong together.
He stole a hat and a typewriter. (not linked)
He stole a cup and saucer. (belonging together)
NOTE
a And, or (and but) can link verb phrases and also whole clauses. • 243
b For or in questions, • 31. 2 THE SIMPLE SENTENCE
14 Phrases in apposition
Two noun phrases are in apposition when one comes after the other and both
refer to the same thing.


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refer to the same thing.
Everyone visits the White House, the home of the President.
Joseph Conrad, the famous English novelist, couldn't speak English until
he was 47.
When the second phrase adds extra information, we use a comma.
When the second phrase identifies the first one, we do not use a comma.
The novelist Joseph Conrad couldn't speak English until he was 4 7.
Pretty 25-year-old secretary Linda Pilkington has shocked her friends and
neighbours.


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neighbours.
The sentence about Linda is typical of newspaper style.
We can also use apposition to add emphasis. This happens in speech, too.
The man is a fool, a complete idiot.
Other kinds of phrases can be in apposition.
The place is miles away, much too far to walk.
The experts say the painting is quite valuable, worth a lot of money.
PAGE 14 PAGE 15
Statements, questions, imperatives
and exclamations
15 Summary
There are four sentence types: statement, question, imperative and exclamation.


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Sentences can be positive or negative.
Main use
Statements • 16 You took a photo. to give information
Negative statements • 17 You did not take a photo. to give information
Questions • 18 Did you take a photo? to ask for information
The imperative • 19 Take a photo. to give orders
Exclamations • 20 What a nice photo! to express feeling
Besides the basic use, each sentence type has other uses. For example, we can use


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a statement to ask for information (I'd like to know all the details); a question form
can be an order or request (Can you post this letter, please?); an imperative can
express good wishes (Have a nice time).
16 Statements
1 Form
For clause patterns in a statement, • 7.
2 Use
This conversation contains a number of statements.
A PROGRAMME ABOUT WILDLIFE
Stella: There's a programme about wildlife on the telly tonight.
Adrian: Uh-huh. Well, I might watch it.


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Adrian: Uh-huh. Well, I might watch it.
Stella: I've got to go out tonight. It's my evening class.
Adrian: Well, I'll video the programme for you.
Stella: Oh, thanks. It's at eight o'clock. BBC2.
Adrian: We can watch it together when you get back.
Stella: OK, I should be back around ten. 3 STATEMENTS, QUESTIONS, IMPERATIVES ETC PAGE 16
The basic use of a statement is to give information: There's a programme about
wildlife on the telly tonight. But some statements do more than give information.


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When Adrian says I'll video the programme for you, he is offering to video it. His
statement is an offer to do something, which Stella accepts by thanking him. And
We can watch it together is a suggestion to which Stella agrees.
There are many different uses of statements. Here are some examples.
Expressing approval: You're doing the right thing.
Expressing sympathy: It was bad luck you didn't pass the exam.
Thanking someone: I'm very grateful.
Asking for information: I need to know your plans.


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Giving orders: I want you to try harder.
In some situations we can use either a statement or another sentence type.
Compare the statement I need to know your plans, the question What are your
plans? and the imperative Tell me about your plans. All these are used to ask for
information.
3 Performative verbs
Some present-simple verbs express the use of the statement, the action it
performs.
Promising: I promise to be good.
Apologizing: It was my fault. I apologize.


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Apologizing: It was my fault. I apologize.
Predicting: I predict a close game.
Requesting: You are requested to vacate your room by 10.00 am.
These are performative verbs: accept, admit, advise, agree, apologize, blame,
confess, congratulate, declare, demand, deny, disagree, forbid, forgive, guarantee,
insist, object, order, predict, promise, propose, protest, recommend, refuse, request,
suggest, thank, warn.
Sometimes we use a modal verb or similar expression. This usually makes the


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statement less direct and so more tentative, more polite.
Advising: I'd advise you to see a solicitor.
Insisting: I must insist we keep to the rules.
Informing: I have to inform you that you have been unsuccessful.
Some typical examples are: must admit, would advise, would agree, must
apologize, must confess, must disagree, can guarantee, have to inform you, must
insist, must object, can promise, must protest, would suggest, must warn.
NOTE


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NOTE
a In general, performative verbs are fairly emphatic. I promise to be good is a more emphatic
promise than I'll be good, and 7 suggest we watch it together is more emphatic than We can
watch it together.
b Some performative verbs are formal.
I order/request you to leave the building. I declare this supermarket open.
c With a few verbs we can use the present continuous.
Don't come too close, I warn you/I'm warning you.
We propose/We are proposing a compromise. 17 Negative statements


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17 Negative statements
1 Use
This text contains some negative statements.
FRANKENSTEIN
In 1818 Mary Shelley wrote a famous book called 'Frankenstein'. But there was no
monster called Frankenstein, as is popularly believed. Frankenstein was not the
name of the monster but the name of the person who created the monster. The
word 'Frankenstein' is often used to mean 'monster' by people who have not read
the book.
Another mistake is to talk of 'Doctor Frankenstein'. Frankenstein was never a


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doctor. Mary Shelley's hero did not study medicine - he studied science and
mathematics at the university of Ingolstadt in Bavaria. There really is a place
called Ingolstadt. There is also a place called Frankenstein, which might or might
not have given the author the idea for the name.
The negative statements correct a mistaken idea, such as the idea that the monster
was called Frankenstein. In general, we use negative statements to inform


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someone that what they might think or expect is not so.
2 Not with a verb
a In the most basic kind of negative statement, not or n't comes after the (first)
auxiliary. We write the auxiliary and n't together as one word.
Some people have not read the book.
The monster wasn't called Frankenstein.
That might or might not have given the author the idea for the name.
b There must be an auxiliary before not. In simple tenses we use the auxiliary
verb do.


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verb do.
I don't like horror films. NOT I like not horror films.
The hero did not study medicine. NOT The hero studied not medicine.
Be on its own also has not/n't after it.
East London is not on most tourist maps.
These shoes aren't very comfortable.
c Look at these forms.
Positive Negative
Full form
Negative
Short form
was called
have read
might have given
like/do like
studied/did study
was not called
have not read
might not have given
do not like
did not study
wasn't called
haven't read


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did not study
wasn't called
haven't read
mightn't have given
don't like
didn't study
We cannot use no to make a negative verb form.
The bus didn't come. NOT The bus no came.
PAGE 17 3 STATEMENTS, QUESTIONS, IMPERATIVES ETC PAGE 18
3 Not in other positions
Not can come before a word or phrase when the speaker is correcting it.
I ordered tea, not coffee.
That's a nice green. ~ It's blue, not green.
Is there a meeting today?~ Not today - tomorrow.


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Is there a meeting today?~ Not today - tomorrow.
Not can also come before a noun phrase with an expression of quantity (many) or
before a phrase of distance or time.
Not many people have their own aeroplane.
There's a cinema not far from here.
The business was explained to me not long afterwards.
NOTE
a Instead of (= in place of) and rather than have a negative meaning. Compare:
They should build houses instead of office blocks.
They should build houses, not office blocks.


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They should build houses, not office blocks.
I drink tea rather than coffee.
I drink tea, not coffee.
b Not can come before a negative prefix, e.g. un, in or dis.
Beggars are a not unusual sight on the streets of London.
Not unusual = fairly usual.
c For not standing for a whole clause, e.g. 7 hope not, • 43(3).
4 Other negative words
There are other words besides not which have a negative meaning.
Meaning
no There's no change. not a/not any
The patient is no better. not any


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The patient is no better. not any
No, she isn't. (opposite of yes)
none We wanted tickets, but there were not any
none left.
no one, nobody I saw no one/nobody acting strangely. not anyone
. nothing I saw nothing suspicious. not anything
nowhere There was nowhere to park. not anywhere
few, little Few people were interested. not many
There was little enthusiasm. not much
never He was never a doctor. not ever
seldom, rarely We seldom/rarely eat out. not often


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no longer Mrs Adams no longer lives here. not any longer
hardly, scarcely We haven't finished. In fact, we've not really, only just
hardly/scarcely started.
neither, nor I can't understand this. not either
~ Neither/Nor can I. (= I can't either.) PAGE 19 17 Negative statements
NOTE
a The verbs fail, avoid, stop, prevent and deny have a negative meaning.
You have failed to reach the necessary standard.
(= You have not reached the necessary standard.)


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(= You have not reached the necessary standard.)
I want to avoid getting caught in the rush hour.
A lock could stop/prevent others from using the telephone.
The player denied having broken the rules.
(= The player said he/she had not broken the rules.)
b Without has a negative meaning.
Lots of people were without a ticket.
(= Lots of people did not have a ticket.)
c For negative prefixes, e.g. unusual, disagree, • 284(2).
5 Double negatives


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5 Double negatives
We do not normally use not/n't or never with another negative word.
I didn't see anyone. NOT I didn't see no one.
That will never happen. NOT That won't never happen.
We've hardly started. NOT We haven't hardly started.
In non-standard English, a double negative means the same as a single negative.
I didn't see no one. (non-standard)
(= I didn't see anyone./I saw no one.)
In standard English a double negative has a different meaning.


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I didn't see no one. I saw one of my friends. (= I saw someone.)
We can't do nothing. (= We must do something.)
NOTE
We sometimes use a negative after I wouldn't be surprised if/It wouldn't surprise me if...
I wouldn't be surprised if it rained/if it didn't rain.
The speaker expects that it will rain.
6 The emphatic negative
a We can stress not.
Frankenstein did not study medicine.
If we use the short form n't, then we can stress the auxiliary (e.g. did).
Frankenstein didn't study medicine.


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Frankenstein didn't study medicine.
b We can use at all to emphasize a negative.
Frankenstein wasn't the name of the monster at all.
There was nowhere at all to park.
Here are some other phrases with a similar meaning.
The operation was not a success by any means. I'm not in the least tired.
The project is not nearly complete. There is still a long way to go.
Her son's visits were far from frequent.
We can use absolutely before no and its compounds.
There was absolutely nowhere to park.
NOTE


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There was absolutely nowhere to park.
NOTE
a We can use ever with a negative word.
No one ever takes any notice of these memos.
For more details about ever and never, •211(1) Note c.
b We can use whatsoever after nothing, none, or after no + noun.
There's nothing whatsoever we can do about it.
The people seem to have no hope whatsoever. 3 STATEMENTS, QUESTIONS, IMPERATIVES ETC PAGE 20
c An adverbial with a negative meaning can come in front position for extra


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emphasis. This can happen with phrases containing the negative words no, never,
neither, nor, seldom, rarely, hardly and the word only. There is inversion of subject
and auxiliary.
At no time did the company break the law.
Compare: The company did not break the law at any time.
Under no circumstances should you travel alone.
Compare: You should not travel alone under any circumstances.
Never in my life have I seen such extraordinary behaviour.


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Compare: I have never seen such extraordinary behaviour in my life.
The telephone had been disconnected. Nor was there any electricity.
Compare: There wasn't any electricity either.
Seldom did we have any time to ourselves.
Compare: We seldom had any time to ourselves.
Only in summer is it hot enough to sit outside.
Compare: It's only hot enough to sit outside in summer.
The pattern with inversion can sound formal and literary, although no way is
informal.
No way am I going to let this happen.


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informal.
No way am I going to let this happen.
NOTE
a A phrase with not can also come in front position for emphasis.
Not since his childhood had Jeff been back to the village.
Compare: Jeff had not been back to the village since his childhood.
b For inversion after no sooner and hardly, • 250(5).
18 Questions
This is a short introduction to questions. For more details about questions and
answers, •21.
Doctor: Where does it hurt?
Patient: Just here. When I lift my arm up.


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Patient: Just here. When I lift my arm up.
Doctor: Has this happened before?
Patient: Well, yes, I do get a pain there sometimes, but it's never been as bad as
this.
Doctor: I see. Could you come over here and lie down, please?
The most basic use of a question is to ask for information, e.g. Where does it hurt?
~ Just here. But questions can have other uses such as requesting, e.g. Could you
come over here, please?
There are wh-questions and yes/no questions. Wh-questions begin with a


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question word, e.g. where, what. In most questions there is inversion of subject
and auxiliary. • 23
Statement Question
It hurts just here. wh-: Where does it hurt?
This has happened before. yes/no: Has this happened before? PAGE 21 19 The imperative
19 The imperative
1 Form
The imperative form is the base form of the verb. It is a second-person form. When
I say Come in, I mean that you should come in. The negative is do not/don't + base
form, and for emphasis we use do + base form.


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form, and for emphasis we use do + base form.
Positive: Come in.
Read the instructions carefully.
Negative: Do not remove this book from the library.
Don't make so much fuss.
Emphatic: Do be careful.
NOTE
We can use other negative words with the imperative.
Never touch electrical equipment with wet hands. Leave no litter.
2 Use
a The basic use of the imperative is to give orders, to get someone to do something.
The speaker expects that the hearer will obey.


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The speaker expects that the hearer will obey.
Teacher (to pupils): Get out your books, please.
Doctor (to patient): Just keep still a moment.
Boss (to employee): Don't tell anyone about this.
Traffic sign: Stop.
b But an imperative can sound abrupt. There are other ways of expressing orders.
I want you to just keep still a moment.
You must hand the work in by the weekend.
You mustn't tell anyone about this.
We often make an order less abrupt by expressing it as a request in question form.


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Can you get out your books, please?
Could you just keep still a moment?
It is generally safer to use a request form, but the imperative can be used
informally between equals.
Give me a hand with these bags.
Hurry up, or we're going to be late.
NOTE
When an imperative is used to tell someone to be quiet or to go away, it usually sounds
abrupt and impolite.
Shut up. Go away - I'm busy. Get lost.
c If a number of actions are involved, the request form need not be repeated for
every action.


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every action.
Can you get out your books, please? Open them at page sixty and look at the
photo. Then think about your reaction to it. 3 STATEMENTS, QUESTIONS, IMPERATIVES ETC PAGE 22
3 Other uses of the imperative
Slogans and advertisements:
Save the rainforests.
Visit historic Bath.
Suggestions and advice:
Why don't you spend a year working before you go to college? Take a year off from
your studies and learn something about the real world.
Warnings and reminders:


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Warnings and reminders:
Look out! There's a car coming.
Always switch off the electricity first.
Don't forget your key.
Instructions and directions:
Select the programme you need by turning the dial to the correct number. Pull out
the knob. The light will come on and the machine will start.
Go along here and turn left at the lights.
Informal offers and invitations:
Have a chocolate.
Come to lunch with us.
Good wishes:
Have a nice holiday. Enjoy yourselves.
NOTE


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Have a nice holiday. Enjoy yourselves.
NOTE
Have a chocolate. = Would you like a chocolate?
Have a nice holiday. = I hope you have a nice holiday.
4 Imperative + question tag
After an imperative we can use these tags: will you? won't you? would you?
can you? can't you? could you?
a We can use a positive tag after a positive imperative.
Teacher: Get out your books, will/would/can/could you?
The meaning is the same as Will you get out your books? but the pattern with the
tag is more informal.


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tag is more informal.
A negative tag expresses greater feeling.
Doctor: Keep still, won't/can't you?
This suggests that the doctor is especially anxious that the patient should keep still,
or annoyed because the patient cannot keep still.
b In warnings, reminders and good wishes, the tag is won't you? after a positive
imperative and will you? after a negative.
Have a nice holiday, won't you?
Don't forget your key, will you?
In offers and invitations the tag is will you? or won't you?


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Have a chocolate, will/won't you?
These tags make the sentences more emphatic. PAGE 23 19 The imperative
5 The imperative with a subject
We can mention the subject you when it contrasts with another person.
I'll wait here. You go round the back.
You can also make an order emphatic or even aggressive.
You be careful what you're saying.
NOTE
a A few other phrases can be the subject.
All of you sit down! Everyone stop what you're doing.
b The negative don't comes before the subject.


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b The negative don't comes before the subject.
Don't you talk to me like that.
6 Let
a Let's (= let us) + base form of the verb expresses a suggestion.
It's a lovely day. Let's sit outside.
Let's have some coffee (,shall we?).
Let's suggests an action by the speaker and the hearer. Let's sit outside means that
we should sit outside.
The negative is let's not or don't let's, and for emphasis we use do let's.
Negative: Let's not waste any time./Don't let's waste any time.


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Emphatic: Do let's get started. We've wasted enough time already.
NOTE
a For American usage, • 303(3).
b The long form is formal and old-fashioned.
Let us give thanks to God.
b Let me means that the speaker is telling him/herself what to do.
Let me think. Where did I put the letter?
Let me see what's in my diary. Let me explain.
Let me think means 'I'm going to think./Give me time to think.'
NOTE
Let can also have the meaning 'allow'.
Oh, you've got some photos. Let me see./May I see?


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c After let we can put a phrase with a noun.
Let the person who made this mess clean it up.
Let the voters choose the government they want. Let them decide.
Let them decide means 'they should decide'.
NOTE
There are two special sentence patterns with a similar meaning to the imperative. Both the
subjunctive and may can express a wish.
God save the Queen.
May your dreams come true.


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God save the Queen.
May your dreams come true.
These patterns are rather formal and used only in limited contexts. 3 STATEMENTS, QUESTIONS, IMPERATIVES ETC PAGE 24
7 Overview: imperative forms
Person Positive Negative Emphatic
FIRST
Singular Let me play a record.
Plural Let's play tennis. Let's not play/ Do let's play soon.
Don't let's play here.
SECOND Play fair. Don't play that record. Do play a record.
+ subject You play the piano Don't you play that
now. silly game.


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now. silly game.
THIRD Let the music play.
20 Exclamations
An exclamation is a sentence spoken with emphasis and feeling. We often use a
pattern with how or what.
1 How and what
Compare these patterns.
Question: How warm is the water?
Exclamation: How warm the water is!
The exclamation means that the water is very warm. It expresses the speaker's
feeling about the degree of warmth.
After how there can be an adjective or adverb.
How lucky you are! How quickly the time passed!


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How lucky you are! How quickly the time passed!
How can also modify a verb.
How we laughed!
After what there can be a noun phrase with a/an or without an article.
What a journey we had! What idiots we've been!
The noun phrase often has an adjective.
What a stupid mistake you made! What lovely flowers these are!
An exclamation can also be just a phrase with how or what.
How lucky! What a journey! What lovely flowers!
2 Other exclamations
Any phrase or short sentence can be an exclamation.


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Oh no! Lovely! You idiot! Stop! Look out! Oh, my God!
There is usually a greater rise or fall of the voice than in other types of sentences.
In writing we use an exclamation mark (!).
3 Exclamations with a negative question form
Some exclamations have the form of a negative question. The voice rises then falls.
Aren't you lucky! (= How lucky you are!) Didn't we laugh! (= How we laughed!) PAGE 25
4
Questions and answers
21 Summary
The use of questions • 22


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21 Summary
The use of questions • 22
We use questions to ask for information and also for requests, suggestions,
offers etc.
Inversion in questions • 23
In most questions there is inversion of the subject and auxiliary.
Statement: You have written a letter.
Question: Have you written a letter?
Yes/no questions and wh-questions • 24
These are the two main kinds of question.
yes/no: Have you written a letter?
wh: What have you written?
Wh-questions: more details • 25


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Wh-questions: more details • 25
A question word can be subject, object, complement or adverbial. Who can be
subject or object.
Who told you? (subject)
Who did you tell? (object)
Question words: more details • 26
A question word can also be a determiner.
What/Which day are they coming?
The choice of what or which depends on the number of possible answers.
We can use how on its own or before an adjective or adverb.
How did you find out?
How far is it to Newcastle?
We can modify a question word.


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We can modify a question word.
Why exactly do you need this information ?
OVERVIEW: question words • 27
Question phrases • 28
We can form question phrases with what and how.
What time is your train?
How much does it cost? 4 QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS
Answering questions • 29
Most answers to questions can be just a word or phrase.
What are you writing? ~ A letter to Kate.
We often use a short answer with yes or no.
Have you written the letter? ~ Fes, I have.
Negative questions • 30


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Negative questions • 30
A question can be negative.
Haven't you answered the letter yet?
Questions with or • 31
We can use or in a question.
Are you sending a card or a letter?
Questions without inversion • 32
In informal conversation a question can sometimes have the same word order
as a statement.
You've written a letter?
Indirect questions • 33
We can ask an indirect question.
I'd like to know what you've written.
Question tags • 34
We can add a question tag to a statement.


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We can add a question tag to a statement.
You've answered the letter, haven't you?
Echo questions and echo tags • 35
We can use an echo question or echo tag to react to a statement.
I've written the letter. ~ Oh, have you?
22 The use of questions
BUYING A TRAIN TICKET
Travel agent: Can I help you?
Customer: Do you sell rail tickets?
Travel agent: Yes, certainly.
Customer: I need a return ticket from Bristol to Paddington.
Travel agent: You're travelling when?
Customer: Tomorrow.


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Customer: Tomorrow.
Travel agent: Tomorrow. That's Friday, isn't it? And when are you
coming back?
Customer: Oh, I'm coming back the same day.
Travel agent: Are you leaving before ten o'clock?
Customer: It's cheaper after ten, is it?
Travel agent: Yes, it's cheaper if you leave after ten and return after six o'clock.
Customer: What time is the next train after ten?
Travel agent: Ten eleven.
PAGE 26 PAGE 27 23 Inversion in questions


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PAGE 26 PAGE 27 23 Inversion in questions
Customer: Oh, fine. Could you tell me how much the cheap ticket is?
Travel agent: Twenty-one pounds.
Customer: Can I have one then, please?
1 The most basic use of a question is to ask for information.
What time is the next train?~ Ten eleven.
2 But we can use questions in other ways, such as getting people to do things.
This happens especially with modal verbs, e.g. can, shall.
Requesting: Can I have one then, please?


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Requesting: Can I have one then, please?
Making suggestions: Shall we take the early train?
Offering: Can I help you?
Asking permission: May I take one of these timetables?
3 There are also 'rhetorical questions', which do not need an answer.
What do you think will happen?~ Who knows?
You're always criticizing me, but have I ever criticized you?
Fancy meeting you here. It's a small world, isn't it?
NOTE
A question can be answered by the person who asks it.


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What is the secret of United's success? Manager Terry Clark believes that it is the players'
willingness to work for each other and for the team.
23 Inversion in questions
1 In most questions there is inversion of the subject and auxiliary.
Statement Question
You are leaving today. Are you leaving today?
The train has got a buffet. Has the train got a buffet?
We can sit here. Where can we sit?
If there is more than one auxiliary verb (e.g. could have), then only the first one


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comes before the subject.
Statement Question
I could have reserved a seat. Could I have reserved a seat?
2 In simple tenses we use the auxiliary verb do.
Statement Question
You like train journeys.
Ox: You do like train journeys. Do you like train journeys?
They arrived at six.
Or: They did arrive at six. Did they arrive at six? 4 QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS PAGE 28
3 Be on its own as an ordinary verb can also come before the subject.
Statement Question
The train was late. Was the train late?


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The train was late. Was the train late?
My ticket is somewhere. Where is my ticket?
4 For short questions, • 38(3).
I thought something might go wrong. ~ And did it?~ I'm afraid so.
For questions without the auxiliary and you, • 42(2).
Leaving already? (= Are you leaving already?)
24 Yes/no questions and wh-questions
1 Ayes/no question can be answered yes or no.
Do you sell rail tickets? ~ Yes, we do./Certainly.
Will I need to change? ~ No, it's a direct service./I don't think so.


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The question begins with an auxiliary (do, will).
2 A wh-question begins with a question word.
When are you going? What shall we do? How does this camera work?
There are nine question words: who, whom, what, which, whose, where, when, why
and how. For an overview, • 27.
For intonation in yes/no and wh-questions, • 54(2b).
25 Wh-questions: more details
1 A question word can be subject, object, complement or adverbial. Compare the
positive statements (in brackets).


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positive statements (in brackets).
Subject: Who can give me some help?
(Someone can give me some help.)
Object: What will tomorrow bring?
(Tomorrow will bring something.)
Complement: Whose is this umbrella?
(This umbrella is someone's.)
Adverbial: When are you coming back?
(You are coming back some time.)
Where is this bus going?
(This bus is going somewhere.)
Why did everyone laugh?
(Everyone laughed for some reason.)


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(Everyone laughed for some reason.)
When a question word is the subject, there is no inversion. The word order is the
same as in a statement.
Who can give me some help?
But when a question word is the object, complement or adverbial (not the subject),
then there is inversion of the subject and auxiliary. For details, • 23.
What will tomorrow bring? Whose is this umbrella? PAGE 29 25 Wh-questions: more details
NOTE
a A question can sometimes be just a question word. • 40


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I'm going to London. ~ When?
b A question word can be part of a sub clause.
What did you think I said? (You thought I said something.)
When would everyone like to leave? (Everyone would like to leave some time.)
c A question can have two question words.
When and where did this happen? Who paid for what?
2 Compare who as subject and object of a question.
Subject: Who invited you to the party? ~ Laura did.
(Someone invited you.)
Object: Who did you invite to the party? ~ Oh, lots of people.


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(You invited someone.)
Who saw the detective?
(Someone saw him.)
Who did the detective see?
(He saw someone.)
Here are some more examples of question words as subject.
What happens next? Which came first, the chicken or the egg?
Who is organizing the trip? Which biscuits taste the best?
Whose cat has been run over, did you say?
How many people know the secret?
3 A question word can also be the object of a preposition.
Who was the parcel addressed to?
(The parcel was addressed to someone.)


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(The parcel was addressed to someone.)
Where does Maria come from?
(Maria comes from somewhere.)
What are young people interested in these days?
(Young people are interested in something these days.)
In informal questions, the preposition comes in the same place as in a statement
(addressed to, come from). But in more formal English it can come before the
question word.
To whom was the parcel addressed?
On what evidence was it decided to make the arrest?
NOTE
a For who and whom, • 26(3).


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NOTE
a For who and whom, • 26(3).
b Since comes before when even in informal English.
Since when has this area been closed to the public?
This often expresses surprise. A question with How long... ? is more neutral. 4 QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS PAGE 30
26 Question words: more details
1 What, which and whose before a noun
These question words can be pronouns, without a noun after them.
What will be the best train?
There are lots of books here. Which do you want?
Whose was the idea?


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Whose was the idea?
They can also be determiners, coming before a noun.
What train will you catch? (You will catch a train.)
Which books do you want? (You want some of the books.)
Whose idea was it? (It was someone's idea.)
Which can come before one/ones or before an of-phrase.
Which ones do you want? Which of these postcards shall we send to Angela?
2 The use of who, what and which
Who always refers to people. Which can refer to people or to something not


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human. What refers mostly to something not human, but it can refer to people
when it comes before a noun.
Human Non-human
Who is your maths teacher?
Which teacher do you have? Which supermarket is cheapest?
What idiot wrote this? What book are you reading?
What do you do in the evenings?
Who is a pronoun and cannot come before a noun or before an of-phrase.
NOT Who teacher do you have? and NOT Who of the teachers do you have?
There is a difference in meaning between what and which.


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What do you do in your spare time? What sport do you play?
Which is the best route? Which way do we go now?
We use what when there is an indefinite (and often large) number of possible
answers. We use which when there is a definite (and often small) number of
possible answers. What relates to the indefinite word a, and which to the definite
word the.
What sport...? (a sport)
(Tennis, or golf, or football, or...)
Which way...? (one of the ways)
(Right or left?)


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Which way...? (one of the ways)
(Right or left?)
The choice of what or which depends on how the speaker sees the number of
possible answers. In some contexts either word is possible.
What newspaper/Which newspaper do you read?
What parts/Which parts of France have you visited?
What size/Which size do you take?
NOTE
We can use what to suggest that there are no possible answers.
Why don't you invite a few friends? ~ What friends? I haven't got any friends. 26 Question words: more details


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3 Who and whom
When who is the object, we can use whom instead.
Who/Whom did you invite?
Whom is formal and rather old-fashioned. Who is more common in everyday
speech.
When who/whom is the object of a preposition, there are two possible patterns.
Who were you talking to?
To whom were you talking?
The pattern with whom is formal.
4 How
a How can express means or manner.
How do you open this bottle? (You open this bottle somehow.)
How did the children behave? (The children behaved well/badly.)


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b When it expresses degree, how can come before an adjective or adverb.
How wide is the river? (20 metres/30 metres wide?)
How soon can you let me know? (very soon/quite soon?)
For question phrases with how, • 28.
c We also use how as an adjective or adverb in friendly enquiries about someone's
well-being, enjoyment or progress.
How are you? ~ Fine, thanks.
How did you like the party?— Oh, it was great.
How are you getting on at college? ~ Fine, thanks. I'm enjoying it.
NOTE


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NOTE
What... like? asks about quality. Sometimes it has a very similar meaning to How...?
How was the film?/ What was the film like?
But What... like? does not refer to well-being.
How's your brother? ~ Oh, he's fine, thanks.
What's your brother like? ~ Well, he's much quieter than I am.
What does your brother look like? ~ He's taller than me, and he's got dark hair.
5 A special pattern with why
Why (not) can come before a noun phrase or a verb.


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Why the panic? (= What is the reason for the panic?)
Look at our prices - why pay more? (= Why should you pay more?)
Why not stay for a while? (= Why don't you stay for a while?)
6 Modifying a question word
a We can use an adverb to modify a question word or phrase.
When exactly are you coming back?
Just what will tomorrow bring?
About how many people live here?
b Else has the meaning 'other'.
What else should I do? (= What other things ... ?)


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Who else did you invite? (= What other people ... ?)
PAGE 31 4 QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS PAGE 32
c We can emphasize the question by using on earth.
What on earth will tomorrow bring?
We can also use ever.
What ever/Whatever can the matter be?
How ever/However did you manage to find us?
Who ever/Whoever invited that awful man?
This means that the speaker has no idea what the answer is. The emphasis often
expresses surprise. The speaker is surprised that someone invited that awful man.


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27 Overview: question words
Question Example Word class Positive expression
word
who, whom Who won? pronoun someone
what What happened? pronoun something
What sport(s)? determiner a sport, some sports
which Which is/are best? pronoun one of them,
some of them
Which sport(s)? determiner one of the sports,
some of the sports
whose Whose was the idea? pronoun someone's
Whose idea was it? determiner someone's
where Where shall we go? adverb of place somewhere


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when When did it happen? adverb of time some time
why Why are you here? adverb of reason for some reason
how How do you open it? adverb of means somehow
How did they behave? adverb of manner
How wide is it? adverb of degree
How are you? adjective
28 Question phrases
What and how can combine with other words to form phrases.
1 What can come before a noun.
What time is the next train?~ Ten eleven.
What colour shirt was he wearing? ~ Blue, I think.


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What kind of/type of/sort of computer have you got? ~ Oh, it's just
a desktop machine.
What make is your car? ~ It's a BMW. PAGE 33 29 Answering questions
2 We use what about/how about to draw attention to something or to make a
suggestion.
What about/How about all this rubbish? Who's going to take it away?
What about/How about some lunch? ~ Good idea.
3 How can come before an adjective or an adverb.
How old is this building? ~ About two hundred years old.
How far did you walk? ~ Miles.


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How far did you walk? ~ Miles.
How often does the machine need servicing? ~ Once a year.
How long can you stay? ~ Not long, I'm afraid.
It can also come before many or much.
How many people live in the building? ~ Twelve.
How much is the cheap ticket? ~ Fifteen pounds seventy-five.
NOTE
How come is an informal phrase meaning 'why'. There is no inversion.
How come all these papers have been left here?~ I'm in the middle of sorting them out.
29 Answering questions
1 How long is an answer?


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29 Answering questions
1 How long is an answer?
Some questions you can answer in a word or phrase, but others need to be
answered in one or more complete sentences. Here are some examples from real
conversations.
Didn't you hear about the bank robbery? ~ No.
I've got a hat. ~ What colour? ~ Brown.
Do you like school? ~ Yes, I do. It's OK.
You haven't got central heating? ~ No, we haven't.
How long do you practise? ~ About half an hour.


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How long do you practise? ~ About half an hour.
Why did you sell the car? ~ It was giving me too much trouble. I was spending
more money on it than it was worth spending money on.
How is Lucy? ~ She's a lot better now. In fact I think she'll be back at school
next week.
It is usually enough to give the relevant piece of information without repeating all
the words of the question. There is no need to say No, I didn't hear about the bank
robbery, or The hat is brown in answer to these questions.


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NOTE
a We can repeat the words of the question to give emphasis, e.g. when we deny something.
Did you break this glass? ~ No, I did not break that glass.
b There is not always a direct grammatical link between a question and answer. The
important thing is that the information is relevant.
What time will you be home? ~ Well, these meetings go on a long time.
Here the questioner would realize that the meeting going on a long time means that 'I will
be home late',


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be home late',
c The hearer may be unable or unwilling to answer.
What's your favourite subject? ~ I haven't really got a favourite subject.
Are you a member of this club?~ Why do you ask?
Where are my keys? ~You ought to know where they are. 4 QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS
2 Yes/no short answers
a We can sometimes answer with a simple yes or no, but English speakers often use a
short answer like Yes, I do or No, we haven't. A short answer relates to the subject


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and auxiliary in the question. The patterns are yes + pronoun + auxiliary and no +
pronoun + auxiliary + n't.
Positive Negative
Is it raining? ~ Yes, it is. No, it isn't.
Have you finished? ~ Yes, I have. No, I haven't.
Can we turn right here? ~ Yes, we can. No, we can't.
b In simple tenses we use the auxiliary do.
Do you play the piano? ~ Yes, I do. (NOT Yes I play.)
Did Roger cut the grass ~ No, he didn't.
c In these examples the question has be on its own, as an ordinary verb.


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Is the chemist's open today? ~ No, it isn't.
Are you warm enough? ~ Yes, I am, thanks.
d We very often add relevant information or comment after a simple yes or no or
after the short answer.
Were you late? ~ Yes, I missed the bus.
Were you late? ~ Yes, I was, I missed the bus.
Did Carl find his wallet? ~ No, unfortunately.
Did Carl find his wallet? ~ No, he didn't, unfortunately.
In some contexts yes/no or a short answer on its own can sound abrupt and not
very polite.


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very polite.
We can sometimes use another phrase instead of yes or no.
Were you late? ~ I'm afraid I was./Of course I wasn't.
e In a negative short answer the strong form not is formal or emphatic.
Was the scheme a success? ~ No, it was not. It was a complete failure.
f We can also use a short answer to agree or disagree with a statement.
Agreeing: These shirts are nice. ~ Yes, they are.
The weather doesn't look very good. ~ No, it doesn't.


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Disagreeing: I posted the letter. ~ No, you didn't. It's still here.
We can't afford a car. ~ Yes, we can, if we buy it on credit.
We often use a tag after the short answer.
These shirts are nice. — Yes, they are, aren't they?
3 Requests, offers, invitations and suggestions
a We cannot usually answer these with just a short answer.
Can I borrow your pen, please? ~ Sure./Of course.
Would you like a chocolate? ~ Yes, please. Thank you.


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Would you like to come to my party? ~ Yes, I'd love to. Thank you very much.
Shall we have some lunch? ~ Good idea./Yes, why not? PAGE 35 30 Negative questions
b A negative answer to a request or invitation needs some explanation.
Can I borrow your pen ? — Sorry, I'm using it to fill this form in.
Would you like to come to my party on Saturday? — I'm sorry. I'd like to, but I'm
going to be away this weekend.
A short answer (e.g. No, you can't) would sound very abrupt and impolite.


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4 Short answers to wh-questions
a When the question word is the subject, we can use a short answer with
a subject + auxiliary.
Who's got a hair drier? ~ Neil has.
Who filled this crossword in? ~ I did.
Which shoes fit best? ~ These do.
b We can leave out the auxiliary.
Who's got a hair drier? ~ Neil.
Who filled this crossword in? ~ Me. • 184(1b)
30 Negative questions
MY PHONE IS OUT OF ORDER
Claire: I'll tell you more when I see you next week.
Anna: Can't you ring me?


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Anna: Can't you ring me?
Claire: No, unfortunately. My phone's still out of order.
Anna: Haven't they repaired it yet?
Claire: No. It's an awful nuisance. It's over a week now.
Anna: Why don't you refuse to pay your bill?
Claire: That wouldn't make any difference, I don't expect.
Anna: Isn't there a rule? Don't they have to repair it within a certain period?
Claire: I don't know. Anyway, it's not working.
1 Use
a A negative yes/no question often expresses surprise.


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Can't you ring me? Haven't they repaired your phone?
The context suggests that the negative is true (they haven't repaired the phone).
Claire has already explained that it is out of order. But Anna is surprised at this.
She thinks they should have repaired it.
b A negative question can be a complaint.
Can't you be quiet? I'm trying to concentrate.
This means that you should be quiet.
A negative question with why can also express surprise or a complaint.


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Why haven't they repaired it? Why can't you be quiet?
c We can use Why don't/doesn't... ? for suggestions and Why didn't... ?to criticize.
Why don't we take a break now? I'm tired.
Why didn't you tell me this before? You should have told me. 4 QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS PAGE 36
We can use why not + verb instead of Why don't you... in a suggestion.
Why not use your credit card?
d Negative questions with who, what and which usually request information.
Who hasn't returned this library book?


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Who hasn't returned this library book?
What can't you understand?
Which of the guests doesn't eat meat?
e We can use a negative question to ask the hearer to agree that something is true.
Didn't I see you on television last night?
The meaning is similar to a tag question with a rising intonation. • 34(3)
I saw you on television last night, didn't I?
NOTE For a negative question form in exclamations, e.g. Wasn't that fun! • 20(3).
2 Form


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2 Form
a We make a question negative by putting n't after the auxiliary.
Haven't you finished yet? NOT Have not you finished yet?
Why doesn't the government take action?
NOTE
The negative of am I is aren't I.
Why aren't I getting paid for this?
b In more formal English not comes after the subject.
Have you not finished yet? Why does the government not take action?
c If the question word is the subject, n't or not comes after the auxiliary.
Who hasn't returned/has not returned this library book?


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d We can use other negative words.
Are you never going to finish? Why does the government take no action?
NOTE
In informal speech the question can be without inversion.
You haven't finished yet?
3 Yes/no answers
The answer no agrees that the negative is true. The answer yes means that the
positive is true.
Haven't they repaired it yet? ~ No, it's an awful nuisance.
~ Yes, they did it yesterday.
31 Questions with or
1 A question can contain two or more alternative answers. The word or comes


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before the last alternative.
Are you coming back today or tomorrow? ~ Today.
Did you speak to a man or a woman? ~ It was a woman. PAGE 37 33 Indirect questions
When are you coming back, today or tomorrow?
Who did you speak to, a man or a woman?
Were you running or jogging?
The voice rises for the first alternative, and then it falls after or.
Shall we take a & bus or a ( taxi?
NOTE
This question does not contain alternative answers.


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Have you got any brothers or sisters? ~ Yes, I've got two sisters.
Here brothers or sisters is spoken as one phrase.
2 Or can link two clauses.
Are you coming back today, or are you staying overnight? ~ I'm coming back today.
The second alternative can be the negative of the first.
Are you coming back today or aren't you/or not? ~ Yes, I am.
This emphasizes the need for a yes/no answer and can sound impatient.
32 Questions without inversion


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32 Questions without inversion
In informal conversation a question can sometimes have the same word order as
in a statement. The question has a rising intonation.
The machine gives change? ~ No, it doesn't.
You're travelling tomorrow?~ Yes.
The car is blue?~ That's right.
The car is what colour? ~ Blue.
They went which way?~ That way.
We use this kind of question only when it follows on from what was said before.
I need a return ticket to Paddington. ~ You're travelling when?~ Tomorrow.
NOTE


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NOTE
For echo questions, • 35(1).
I'm travelling tomorrow. ~ You're travelling when?
33 Indirect questions
We can ask a question indirectly by putting it into a sub clause beginning with a
question word or with if/whether. This makes the question sound less abrupt,
more tentative.
We need to know what the rules are.
Can I ask you how much you're getting paid for the job?
Could you tell me where Queen Street is, please?
I'm trying to find out who owns this building.


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I'm trying to find out who owns this building.
Do you know when the train gets in?
I was wondering if/whether you could give me a lift.
There is no inversion of the subject and auxiliary in the sub clause.
NOT We need to know what are the rules.
For question word + to-infinitive, • 125.
Could you tell me how to get there?
NOTE If the main clause is a statement (We need to know), then there is no question mark. 4 QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS PAGE 38
34 Question tags
COAL FIRES


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34 Question tags
COAL FIRES
Gary: It's colder today, isn't it?
Brian: Yes, it's not very warm, is it? I shall have to light the fire soon.
Gary: Oh, you have coal fires, do you?
Brian: Yes. We don't have central heating. You have central heating, don't you?
Gary: Yes, we do. But coal fires are nice, aren't they? More comforting than a
radiator.
Brian: Yes, but they're a lot more work than just switching on the heating. We
keep talking about getting central heating put in.


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Gary: I suppose coal fires aren't very convenient, are they?
Brian: They certainly aren't.
1 Form
a A tag relates to the subject and auxiliary of the main clause. The structure of a
negative tag is auxiliary + n't+ pronoun, e.g. isn't it.
It's raining, isn't it?
You've finished, haven't you?
We can go now, can't we?
b In simple tenses we use the auxiliary verb do.
Louise works at the hospital, doesn't she?
You came home late, didn't you?


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You came home late, didn't you?
c In these examples the main clause has be on its own, as an ordinary verb.
It's colder today, isn't it?
The sausages were nice, weren't they?
d A positive tag is like a negative one, but without n't.
It isn't raining, is it?
You haven't finished, have you?
NOTE The form of question tags
a We can use the subject there in a tag.
There were lots of people at the carnival, weren't there?


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But we do not use this, that, these or those in the tag. We use it or they instead.
That was lucky, wasn't it? Those are nice, aren't they?
b After I am... the tag is aren't I.
I'm late, aren't I?
c After a subject such as everyone, someone etc, we use they in a tag.
Anyone could just walk in here, couldn't they?
d In more formal English, not can come after the pronoun.
Progress is being made, is it not?
e We can use don't you think when asking someone's opinion.


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These pictures are good, don't you think?
f In informal English we can use yes, no, right and OK as tags. Right and OK are more
common in the USA. • 303(4)
These figures are correct, yes? You like London, no?
I'll be outside the post office, right? We're going to start now, OK ?
But as a general rule learners should not use these tags. Often a tag like aren't they or
don't you is better. 34 Question tags
2 Overview: patterns with tags
There are three main patterns.
Statement Tag
PATTERN A


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Statement Tag
PATTERN A
PATTERN B
PATTERN C
3 Pattern A: positive statement + negative tag
This kind of tag asks the hearer to agree that the statement in the main clause is
true. It is sometimes obvious that the statement is true. For example, in the
conversation both speakers know that it is colder today. The tag (isn't it) is not
really a request for information but an invitation to the hearer to continue the
conversation.


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conversation.
It's difficult to find your way around this building, isn't it?~ Yes, I'm always
getting lost in here.
That was fun, wasn't it?~ Yes, I really enjoyed it.
When the statement is clearly true, then the speaker uses a falling intonation on
the tag.
It's cold, \ isn't it?
But when the speaker is not sure if the statement is true, then the tag is more like a
real question, a request for information. The speaker's voice rises on the tag.


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You have central heating, & don't you? ~ Yes, we do.
We're going the right way, & aren't we?~ I hope so.
NOTE
Sometimes a tag with a rising intonation can express surprise.
They have central heating, don't they? Everyone has central heating nowadays.
The speaker is surprised at the idea that someone might have no central heating. The
meaning is similar to a negative question: Don't they have central heating? • 30
4 Pattern B: negative statement + positive tag


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4 Pattern B: negative statement + positive tag
The use is mostly the same as for Pattern A. Compare It's colder, isn't it? and It's not
so warm, is it? As in Pattern A, the voice falls or rises depending on how sure the
speaker is that the statement is true.
We can also use Pattern B in a tentative question or request.
You haven't heard the exam results, have you? ~ No, sorry, I haven't.
You couldn't lend me ten pounds, could you? ~ Yes, OK.
We can also use Pattern B to express disapproval.


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We can also use Pattern B to express disapproval.
You haven't broken that clock, have you? ~ No, of course I haven't.
You aren't staying in bed all day, are you?
This means 'I hope you aren't staying in bed all day.'
NOTE
A negative statement can have a negative word other than not.
We've had no information yet, have we?
PAGE 39
Positive Negative
Negative Positive
Positive Positive
It's your birthday, isn't it?
It isn't your birthday, is it?


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It isn't your birthday, is it?
It's your birthday, is it? 4 QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS PAGE 40
5 Pattern C: positive statement + positive tag
Pattern C also asks the hearer to agree that the statement is true. It also suggests
that the speaker has just learnt, realized or remembered the information. Look at
this example from the conversation Coal fires.
I shall have to light the fire soon. ~ Oh, you have coal fires, do you?


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The positive tag means that the information is new to Gary. He has just realized
from Brian's words that Brian has coal fires. The meaning is the same as 'So you
have coal fires'. Here are some more examples.
I can't help you just at the moment. ~ You're busy, are you? ~ Very busy, I'm
afraid.
Annabelle is out in her new sports car. ~ Oh, she's bought one, has she? ~ Yes, she
got it yesterday.
Compare patterns A and C.
We can't move this cupboard. ~ It's heavy, isn't it?


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(I already know that it is heavy.)
We can't move this cupboard. ~ It's heavy, is it?
(I have just learnt from your words that it is heavy.)
6 Tags with the imperative and let's
Pass me the salt, will/would/can/could you? • 19(4)
Let's have a rest now, shall we?
35 Echo questions and echo tags
1 Echo questions
We can use an echo question when we do not understand what someone says to
us, or we find it hard to believe.
I often eat bits of wood. ~ What do you eat?/You eat what?


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My father knew Ronald Reagan. ~ Who did he know?/He knew who?
Did you see the naked lady? ~ Did I see the what?
The second speaker is asking the first to repeat the important information.
These questions can usually be with or without inversion. They are spoken with a
rising intonation on the question word.
& What have they done? They've done & what?
NOTE
a The question word what on its own can be an echo question or an exclamation.
I often eat bits of wood. ~ What?/What!


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I often eat bits of wood. ~ What?/What!
b We can use a yes/no question to check that we heard correctly.
I often eat bits of wood. ~ You eat bits of wood? PAGE 41 35 Echo questions and echo tags
2 Echo tags
We form an echo tag like an ordinary question tag. • 34(1). A positive statement
has a positive tag, and a negative statement has a negative tag. (But • Note c.)
We're moving house soon. ~ Oh, are you?
Max played the part brilliantly. ~ Did he really?
The boss isn't very well. ~ Isn't she?


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The boss isn't very well. ~ Isn't she?
My brothers can't swim. ~ Can't they?
These tags express interest in what someone has just said. Oh, are you? means 'Oh,
really?' The voice usually rises.
Oh, & are you? Did he & really?
But if the voice falls, this means that the speaker is not interested. • 54(2c)
NOTE
a An echo tag is sometimes without inversion.
We're moving house soon. ~ You are?
b After a positive statement, there can be a short statement + echo tag.


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We're moving house soon. ~ You are, are you?
Max played the part brilliantly. ~ He did, did he?
Like a simple echo tag, this also expresses interest. Although the information is new, there
is a suggestion that it was expected: You are, are you? I thought so. But if the short
statement contradicts the previous sentence, this expresses surprise or even disbelief.
We're moving house soon. ~ You aren't, are you?
My brothers can't swim. ~ They can, can't they?


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My brothers can't swim. ~ They can, can't they?
c We can use a negative tag in reply to a positive statement. This expresses agreement.
Max played the part brilliantly. ~ Yes, didn't he?
It's a lovely day. ~ It is, isn't it?
That was fun. ~ Yes, wasn't it?
The information is already known; both speakers saw Max playing the part. PAGE 42
5Leaving out and replacing words
36 Summary
Avoiding repetition • 37
We sometimes leave out or replace words to avoid repeating them. The meaning


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must be clear from the context.
Leaving out words after the auxiliary • 38
Have you seen the film? ~ Yes, I have.
Leaving out an infinitive clause • 39
We didn't get the job finished, although we were hoping to.
Leaving out words after a question word • 40
This photo was taken years ago. I forget where.
Leaving out the verb • 41
Adrian chose a steak and Lucy spaghetti.
Leaving out words at the beginning of a sentence • 42
Enjoying yourself? (= Are you enjoying yourself?)


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Enjoying yourself? (= Are you enjoying yourself?)
Patterns with so, neither etc • 43
I've seen the film. ~ So have I.
We were hoping to finish the job, but we didn't manage to do so.
Have you seen the film?~ Yes, I think so.
You're in this photo, look. ~ Oh, so I am.
The economy is healthy now, but will it remain so?
Some other ways of avoiding repetition • 44
We need some matches. Have we got any?
I saw the film, but I didn't like it.
Special styles • 45


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Special styles • 45
Words can be left out in special styles: in labels, newspaper headlines, instructions
and postcards, and in note style.
NOTE For patterns with a predicative adjective, e.g. although tired, • 199(5c). PAGE 43 38 Leaving out words after the auxiliary
37 Avoiding repetition
1 We sometimes leave out a word or phrase, or we replace it by another word such as
a pronoun. Here is part of a real conversation in a shop.
CHOOSING A JACKET


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CHOOSING A JACKET
Assistant: There's this rather nice rose pink, or two or three nice blues, burgundy,
and here is one that's a very nice colour. I can show it to you in the daylight. And
this one runs at sixty-nine ninety-five.
Customer: Are they all the same price?
Assistant: Yes. These are cotton, the best cotton one can get. The best quality. And
also a very nice green - I'm afraid I haven't the size fourteen.
Customer: It's a nice colour though.
(from M. Underwood and P. Barr Listeners)


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(from M. Underwood and P. Barr Listeners)
When the customer went into the shop, she asked to look at jackets. While she and
the assistant are looking at the jackets, there is no need to repeat the word jacket. It
is clear from the situation what the topic of the conversation is.
... and here is one that's a very nice colour. (= here is a jacket...)
I can show it to you in the daylight. (= ... show the jacket...)
These are cotton. (= These jackets are ...)


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These are cotton. (= These jackets are ...)
2 But we sometimes repeat things for emphasis.
There's this rather nice rose pink, or two or three nice blues, burgundy, and here is
one that's a very nice colour.
These are cotton, the best cotton one can get.
The assistant wants to emphasize that the colours are all nice and that the material
is cotton.
Repeating words in conversation can sometimes make things easier to express and
to understand. • 53(1a)


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to understand. • 53(1a)
3 Sometimes the words that are left out or replaced come later, not earlier.
If you want to, you can pay by credit card.
(= If you want to pay by credit card,...)
After she had had a cup of tea, Phyllis felt much better.
(= After Phyllis had had...)
Here she refers forward to Phyllis, which comes later in the sentence.
38 Leaving out words after the auxiliary
1 A sentence can end with an auxiliary if the meaning is clear from the context.


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I'm getting old. ~ Yes, I'm afraid you are.
Kate hadn't brought an umbrella. She was pleased to see that Sue had.
I don't want to answer this letter, but perhaps I should.
Can you get satellite TV? We can.
If the verb is in a simple tense, we use a form of do.
I don't enjoy parties as much as my wife does.
We can also end a sentence with the ordinary verb be.
It's a nice colour. At least, I think it is. 5 LEAVING OUT AND REPLACING WORDS PAGE 44


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The stress can be on the auxiliary or the subject, whichever is the new information.
Yes, I'm afraid you 'are. (emphasis on the fact)
She was pleased to see that 'Sue had. (emphasis on the person)
NOTE The auxiliary cannot be a short form or weak form.
NOT She was pleased to see that Sue'd-.
2 Usually everything after the auxiliary is left out.
I'm getting old. ~ Yes, I'm afraid you are.
After are we leave out getting old. But there are some exceptions to this.
a We do not leave out not/n't.


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a We do not leave out not/n't.
What did you have for breakfast? ~ I didn't. I'm not eating today.
b Sometimes we have to use two auxiliary verbs. When the first is a new word, we
cannot leave out the second.
Have the team won?~ Well, everyone's smiling, so they must have.
I don't know if Tom is still waiting. He might be.
When will the room be cleaned? ~ It just has been.
Here must, might and has are not in the previous sentence.


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But when the two auxiliaries are both in the previous sentence, then we can leave
out the second.
The corridor hasn't been cleaned, but the room has (been).
You could have hurt yourself. ~ Yes, I could (have).
c In British English do is sometimes used after an auxiliary.
I don't want to answer this letter, but perhaps I should (do).
Have the team won?~ Well, everyone's smiling, so they must have (done).
Here do = answer the letter, and done = won.
d There can be an adverbial or a tag.


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d There can be an adverbial or a tag.
It's a nice colour though. ~ Yes, it is, isn't it?
Is there a market today? ~ I don't know. There was yesterday.
Here a market is left out of the answer, but yesterday's new information.
3 A short question consists of an auxiliary + subject.
I've seen the film before. Have you?~ No, I haven't.
I wanted Helen to pass her test. ~ And did she? ~ Yes.
Here it is clear from the context that And did she? = And did she pass her test?


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39 Leaving out an infinitive clause
1 When there is no need to repeat a to-infinitive clause, we can leave it out.
To stands for the whole clause.
Would you like to join us for lunch? ~ Yes, I'd love to.
Jane got the job, although she didn't expect to.
You've switched the machine off. I told you not to, didn't I?
I haven't washed up yet, but I'm going to.
But we repeat an auxiliary after to.
I haven't done as much work today as I'd like to have.


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Jane was chosen for the job, although she didn't expect to be. PAGE 45 42 Leaving out words at the beginning of a sentence
2 Sometimes we can also leave out to.
I don't work as hard as I ought (to).
Take one of these brochures if you want (to).
We usually leave out to after an adjective.
We need people to serve refreshments. Are you willing?
NOTE
We usually leave out to after like but not after would like.
Take one of these brochures if you like.
Take one of these brochures if you'd like to.


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Take one of these brochures if you'd like to.
3 We can also leave out a bare infinitive (without to).
I wanted to borrow Tim's cassettes, but he wouldn't let me.
(= ... let me borrow his cassettes.)
We can go somewhere else if you'd rather.
(= ... if you'd rather go somewhere else.)
40 Leaving out words after a question word
We can leave out the words after a question word or phrase rather than repeat
them.
The road is closed to traffic. No one knows why.


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The road is closed to traffic. No one knows why.
I'm going to the dentist this afternoon. ~ Oh, what time?
I put the certificate somewhere, and now I can't remember where.
When the question word is the subject, the auxiliary can come after it.
Something rather strange has happened. ~ What (has)?
41 Leaving out the verb
When there are two sentences with the same pattern and the same verb, then we
do not need to repeat the verb.


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do not need to repeat the verb.
The new warehouse contains furniture and the old one electrical goods.
(= ... and the old one contains electrical goods.)
Everton have played ten games but Liverpool only eight.
(= ... but Liverpool have only played eight games.)
This happens only in rather formal English.
42 Leaving out words at the beginning of
a sentence
In informal English we can leave out some kinds of words from the beginning of a
sentence if the meaning is clear without them.


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sentence if the meaning is clear without them.
Ready? ~ Sorry, no. Can't find my car keys. ~ Doesn't matter. We can go in my car.
~ OK. ~ Better get going, or we'll be late.
Ready? means 'Are you ready?', and it is clear that the question refers to the person
spoken to. Doesn't matter means 'It doesn't matter', and the meaning is clear
without it. The same thing happens in informal writing, for example in postcards.
• 45(4) 5 LEAVING OUT AND REPLACING WORDS PAGE 46
1 Statements


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1 Statements
We can leave out the subjects I and it.
Can't find my keys. (~ I can't find ...)
Hope you have a good time. (= I hope ...)
Feels colder today. (= It feels colder today.)
2 Yes/no questions
We can leave out the auxiliary or the ordinary verb be from a yes/no question.
Your problem been sorted out? (= Has your problem ... ?)
Everything all right? (= Is everything... ?)
We can sometimes leave out both the subject and the auxiliary or the subject and


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the ordinary verb be, especially if the subject is you or there.
Tired? (= Are you tired?)
Need to borrow money? Just give us a ring. (= Do you need ... ?)
Any free seats in here? (= Are there any free seats ... ?)
3 Leaving out a/an and the
We can sometimes leave out these words before the subject.
Cup of tea is what I need. (= A cup of tea...)
Television's broken down. (= The television ...)
4 Leaving out an imperative verb


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4 Leaving out an imperative verb
We can sometimes leave out an imperative verb. The verb is usually be or
expresses movement.
Careful. (= Be careful.)
This way, please. (= Come this way, please.)
43 Patterns with so, neither etc
1 Too, either, so and neither/nor
a After a clause there can be a short addition with too or either. The positive pattern
is subject + auxiliary + too. The negative is subject + auxiliary + n't+ either.
You're cheating. ~ You are, too.


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You're cheating. ~ You are, too.
Barbara can't drive, and her husband can't either.
In simple tenses we use the auxiliary verb do.
I like chocolate. ~ I do, too.
That torch doesn't work. ~ This one doesn't either.
We can also use be on its own as an ordinary verb.
I'm tired. ~ I am, too. PAGE 47 43 Patterns with so, neither etc
b An addition to a positive statement can also have this pattern with 50.
I like chocolate. ~ So do I. You're beautiful. ~ So are you.


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Children should behave themselves, and so should adults.
So here means the same as too.
There is inversion.
NOT I like chocolate. ~ So I do.
For So I do, • (4).
c An addition to a negative statement can also have this pattern with neither or nor.
Barbara can't drive, and neither/nor can her husband.
We haven't got a dishwasher. ~ Neither/Nor have we.
The ham didn't taste very nice. ~ Neither/Nor did the eggs.
Neither and nor mean the same as not... either.
NOTE


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NOTE
a There is no difference in meaning between neither and nor, but nor is a little more formal.
b The first sound in either/neither is /i:/ in the USA and usually /ai/ in Britain.
d In these examples a negative addition follows a positive statement, and vice versa.
I'm hungry now. ~ Well, I'm not.
We haven't got a dishwasher. ~ We have.
2 Do so, do it and do that
Do so and do it refer to an action which is clear from the context. Do so is a little
formal.


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formal.
Anna had often thought of murdering her husband, but she hesitated to actually
do so/do it.
I wanted to jump, but I just couldn't do it.
Here the stress is on do, not on so/it. We are interested in whether or not someone
does the action.
When do that refers to an action, the stress is usually on that.
I might murder my husband. ~ Oh, I wouldn't do that if I were you.
Here we are interested in or surprised at what kind of action it is.
3 So and not replacing a clause


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3 So and not replacing a clause
a So can stand for a whole clause.
Will you be going out? ~ Yes, I expect so.
I'm not sure if the shop stays open late, but I think so.
Can the machine be repaired?'~ I hope so.
Has the committee reached a decision?~ Well, it seems so.
I'm travelling round the world. ~ 7s that so?
Here I expect so means 'I expect I'll be going out.' We cannot leave out so or use it.
NOT Yes, I expect. and NOT Yes, I expect it.


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NOT Yes, I expect. and NOT Yes, I expect it.
b We can use these verbs and expressions in this pattern with so: be afraid,
it appears/appeared, assume, be, believe, do • (2), expect, guess, hope, imagine,
presume, say, it seems/seemed, suppose, suspect, tell (someone), think.
We do not use know or be sure in this pattern.
The shop stays open late. ~ Yes, I know. NOT Yes, I know so.
~ Are you sure? NOT Are you sure so? 5 LEAVING OUT AND REPLACING WORDS PAGE 48


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c There are two ways of forming a negative pattern.
Negative verb + so: Will you be going out? ~ I don't expect so.
Positive verb + not: Is this watch broken?~ I hope not.
Some verbs can form the negative with either pattern, e.g. I don't suppose so or
I suppose not. They are appear, believe, say, seem and suppose.
Expect, imagine and think usually form the negative with so. I don't think so is
more usual than I think not, which is rather formal.


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Assume, be afraid, guess, hope, presume and suspect form the negative with not.
Is this picture worth a lot of money? ~ I'm afraid not.
There's no use waiting any longer. ~ I guess not.
NOTE
Compare the different meanings with say.
Is the illness serious? ~ I don't know. The doctor didn't say so.
~ No, it isn't. The doctor said not.
d With a few verbs, so can come at the beginning of the sentence.
Mark and Susan are good friends. ~ So it seems./So it appears.


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They're giving away free tickets. Or so they say, anyway.
e So and not can replace a clause after if.
Do you want your money to work for you? If so, you'll be interested in our Super
Savers account.
Have you got transport? If not, I can give you a lift.
We can also use not after the adverbs certainly, of course, probably, perhaps, maybe
and possibly.
Did you open my letter? ~ Certainly not.
4 So in short answers
A short answer with so can express agreement. The pattern is so + pronoun +


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auxiliary or be.
You've made a mistake here. ~ Oh, so I have. Thank you.
This pattern has a different meaning to a yes/no short answer.
This glass is cracked. ~ So it is. I hadn't noticed.
~ Yes, it is. I meant to throw it away.
So it is means here that the speaker notices the crack for the first time.
5 So, that way and the same
a So can replace an adjective after become and remain.
The situation is not yet serious, but it may become so. (= become serious)


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So is rather formal here. In informal English we use get/stay that way.
The situation isn't serious yet, but it might get that way.
We can use so with more or less.
It's generally pretty busy here - more so in summer, of course. PAGE 49 44 Some other ways of avoiding repetition
b The same can replace a phrase or clause already mentioned.
Happy New Year! ~ Thank you. (The) same to you.
Monday was beautiful, and Tuesday was the same.


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Monday was beautiful, and Tuesday was the same.
The others think we should give up the idea, and I think the same.
Do the same can refer to an action already mentioned.
When the mayor lifted his glass to drink, everyone else did the same.
(= everyone else lifted their glasses, too)
NOTE
We can use the same way after feel.
The others think we should give up the idea, and I feel the same (way).
6 Overview: uses of so
Use Example Meaning


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6 Overview: uses of so
Use Example Meaning
• 43(1) expressing addition I'm hungry. ~ So am I. 'too, also'
• 43(2) after do If you wish to look round, (do so = look
you may do so. round)
• 43(3) replacing a clause Have we got time?~ (think so = think
I think so. we've got time)
• 43(4) expressing agreement The coach has arrived. ~ So 'I see/remember
it has. that...'
• 43(5a) replacing an adjective Things have been difficult, (less so = less
but they should become difficult)
less so.


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but they should become difficult)
less so.
• 212 expressing degree The view was so nice. 'very'
He does talk so. 'a lot'
• 247 expressing reason I was tired, so I went to bed. 'therefore'
• 252 expressing purpose I got up early so (that) I 'in order that'
wouldn't be late.
44 Some other ways of avoiding repetition
1 If the meaning is clear from the context, we can leave out a noun after a number or
other quantifier, a demonstrative, or a superlative adjective.


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It's got one pocket. ~ No, it's got two, look.
I've got some chocolate here. Would you like some?
How do you like the photos? ~ I think this is the nicest.
We cannot leave out the whole noun phrase.
NOT I've got some chocolate here. Would you like?
2 In some contexts we can use one/ones. • 188
I wanted a big packet, not a small one.
3 We can use a personal pronoun or possessive pronoun instead of a noun phrase.
When Monica got the invitation, she felt pleased.


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When Monica got the invitation, she felt pleased.
I forgot my invitation, but Monica remembered hers. 5 LEAVING OUT AND REPLACING WORDS PAGE 50
4 It, this or that can replace a clause.
Terry can't get a job, but it doesn't seem to bother him.
(it = that Terry can't get a job)
I hear the shop is closing down. ~ Who told you that?
(that = that the shop is closing down)
5 The adverbs here, there, now and then can replace an expression of place or time.


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I left the bag on the seat, and when I got back, it wasn't there. (= on the seat)
When I was young, we didn't have a television. Things were different then.
(= when I was young)
45 Special styles
In some special styles of English, words are left out to save space.
1 Signs and labels
A sign or label identifies the thing it is written on or tells us something about it.
Meaning
On a building Town Hall 'This is the town hall.'
On a door Office 'This room is the office.'


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On a door Office 'This room is the office.'
On a packet Automatic dishwasher 'This packet contains automatic
powder dishwasher powder.'
On a car For sale 'This car is for sale.'
2 Newspaper headlines
Alan and the, auxiliary verbs and be are often left out of headlines.
Actor dies (= An actor has died.)
PM angry (= The Prime Minister is angry.)
Six arrested in raid (= Six people have been arrested in a raid.)
3 Instructions


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3 Instructions
The is sometimes left out of instructions. Here is an example from a camera
instruction booklet.
Open battery compartment cover by pushing in direction of arrow.
(= Open the battery compartment cover by pushing in the direction
of the arrow.)
When an instruction is written on the thing it refers to, then there is often no need
to use the noun.
Handle with care. (on a parcel)
Do not cover. (on a heater) PAGE 51 45 Special styles
4 Postcards and diaries


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4 Postcards and diaries
Some kinds of words can be left out from a postcard or diary to avoid repetition or
to save space. They include I and we, a/an and the, auxiliary verbs, the verb be, and
there is/are.
Arrived safely Saturday. Hotel OK, weather marvellous, sun shining. Been
sunbathing. Lots to do here. Going on excursion tomorrow.
5 Note style
English can be written in note style when information must be given as briefly as
possible. This information is about Edinburgh University.


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WHAT IT'S LIKE
Large and diverse university set in heart of historic city. Separate science campus
with regular (free) minibus service. Buildings range from historic to high-tech.
Main accommodation in central Halls with wide range of renovated houses and
student flats. Accommodation situation improving.
(from K. Boehm and J. Lees-Spalding The Student Book)
The words left out here are a/an and the, the verb be and there is/are.


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We can also use note style when writing down the important parts of what is said,
for example at a lecture or meeting. PAGE 52
6
Information and emphasis
46 Summary
Word order and information • 47
In a statement the subject usually makes a link with the situation or with the
previous sentence.
I hate supermarkets. They're so crowded. And they're expensive. The prices
horrify me.
Each of these sentences begins with something known, old information. I is the


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speaker; they refers back to supermarkets; the prices makes a link with expensive.
The new information normally comes later in the sentence. For example, in the
second sentence so crowded is new, mentioned for the first time.
The subject • 48
When we decide how to express an idea, we usually choose a subject that relates to
the previous sentence.
There are twelve of us in the group. Twelve people will fit in the minibus.


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We can either go in three cars or in the minibus. The minibus holds twelve people.
Front position • 49
Some elements can come before the subject. This is to give them emphasis or to
contrast them with another phrase.
They spent the morning sightseeing. In the afternoon, they resumed their
journey south.
I've read the book. The film I haven't yet seen.
Sometimes there is inversion of subject and verb.
At the end of the garden was a swimming-pool. PAGE 53 47 Word order and information


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The empty subjects there and it • 50
We can also use there + be.
There was a swimming-pool at the end of the garden.
We use it referring forward to a phrase or clause.
It's nice to see you.
It was a good thing we didn't have to pay.
Emphasis • 51
We can emphasize a word by giving it extra stress.
I hate supermarkets. They're awful places.
I hate supermarkets (not little shops).
We can use the emphatic form of a verb.
I did go to the supermarket. I went this morning.


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I did go to the supermarket. I went this morning.
There are also patterns with it and what.
It's supermarkets I hate.
What I hate is supermarkets.
47 Word order and information
1 Information in a statement
Imagine each of these statements as the start of a conversation.
(in a cafe) This coffee tastes awful.
(at a chemist's) I need something for a headache.
(at a railway station) The next train is at half past nine.


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In each of these statements, the first phrase is the topic, what it is about. The topic
is usually the subject. The speaker is giving information about this coffee, I and the
next train. The topic is known or expected in the situation: coffee is what we are
drinking, I am in the shop, the next train is what we are going to catch.
The new information about the topic usually comes at or near the end of the
sentence.
This coffee tastes awful.
I need something for a headache.


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I need something for a headache.
The next train is at half past nine.
The point of interest, the important part of the message, is awful, a headache and
half past nine. It is also the part of the sentence where the voice rises or falls. For
details about intonation, • 54(2).
Each of the statements starts with something known, old information and ends
with something new. The listener knows that the speaker is drinking coffee, but


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he/she doesn't know the speaker's opinion of the coffee: that it tastes awful (not
nice). 6 INFORMATION AND EMPHASIS PAGE 54
2 Information in a text
a In a text, old information usually comes first in the sentence and new information
comes later.
ELEGANT BUILDING
Britain's towns were given a new and an elegant appearance between 1700 and
1830. This period covers the building styles known as Queen Anne, Georgian and
Regency, all three of them periods in which houses were very well designed.


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Previously, towns had grown naturally and usually had a disorderly, higgledy-
piggledy appearance. In the new age, architects planned whole parts of towns,
and built beautiful houses in terraces, or in squares with gardens in the middle.
The houses of these periods are well-proportioned and dignified, with carefully
spaced windows and handsome front doors. They can be seen in many towns,
especially in London, Edinburgh, Bath, Cheltenham and Brighton.


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Brighton became famous after 1784 when the Prince of Wales, later King George
IV, went there regularly, and later built the Royal Pavilion.
(from R. Bowood Our Land in the Making)
The subject of each sentence is something expected in the context. Usually it
relates to something mentioned earlier.
Already mentioned Subject of sentence
We can simply repeat a word (Brighton). Or we can use a pronoun if it is clear what


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it refers to (The houses... They...). Or we can repeat an idea in different words
(... between 1700 and 1830. This period...). Here both phrases refer to the same
thing, the period of time. The subject architects is also known information because
we can relate it to houses were very well designed.
A subject can be in contrast with something mentioned before.
The towns were expanding rapidly. The villages, on the other hand,...
b A subject can have an adverbial in front of it.


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b A subject can have an adverbial in front of it.
Previously, towns had grown naturally.
Previously is linked to this period. For more on adverbials in front position, • 49(1).
c When a sentence starts with something known, it is usually easier to understand. If
the link is not clear at first, then the reader has to work harder to understand the
meaning. In this example, the word order of the second sentence has been changed.


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...in many towns, especially in London, Edinburgh, Bath, Cheltenham and
Brighton. After 1784, when the Prince of Wales, later King George IV, went to
Brighton regularly, and later when he built the Royal Pavilion,...
The second sentence is now more difficult to read because the link with the
previous sentence (Brighton) does not come at the beginning.
between 1700 and 1830
Britain's towns
houses... designed
three... periods... houses
The houses of these periods
Brighton
This period covers...


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Brighton
This period covers...
towns had...
architects planned...
The houses of these periods are...
They can...
Brighton became... 49 Front position
48 The subject
1 The subject often makes a link with the previous sentence.
The man is in prison. He stole some jewellery.
There was a break-in. Some jewellery was stolen.
The girls did well. Celia got the first prize.
There were lots of prizes. The first prize went to Celia.


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We can often express an idea in different ways, e.g. Celia got the prize./The prize
went to Celia. It is best to choose a subject that relates to what went before.
2 The subject can express ideas such as time and place.
This has been an eventful year for us. September saw our move to new offices.
(= We moved to new offices in September.)
The house was empty, but the garage contained some old chairs.
(= There were some old chairs in the garage.)


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(= There were some old chairs in the garage.)
They're building a new theme park. It will attract lots of visitors.
(= Lots of people will visit it.)
3 Sometimes we can use an abstract noun to refer back to the idea in the previous
sentence.
Someone threw a stone through the window. This incident upset everyone.
Lucy had finally made up her mind. The decision had not been easy.
Brian is an impossible person. His rudeness puts people off.
The people here have nothing. Their poverty is extreme.


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49 Front position
The subject often comes at the beginning of a statement, but not always. We
sometimes put another phrase in front position before the subject. We do this to
emphasize a phrase or to contrast it with phrases in other sentences. The phrase in
front position is more prominent than in its normal position.
1 An adverbial in front position
a This paragraph is about a man who is starting a forbidden love affair.


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For a week after this, life was like a restless dream. On the next day she did not
appear in the canteen until he was leaving it, the whistle having already blown.
Presumably she had been changed on to a later shift. They passed each other
without a glance. On the day after that she was in the canteen at the usual time,
but with three other girls and immediately under a telescreen. Then for three
dreadful days she did not appear at all.
(from G. Orwell Nineteen Eighty-Four)


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(from G. Orwell Nineteen Eighty-Four)
The first phrase in the sentence usually relates to something that has gone before.
Here the adverbials in front position make the sequence of events clearer.
Compare an alternative order.
They passed each other without a glance. She was in the canteen at the usual
time on the day after that...
This order is possible, but it is more difficult to read. You might not realize at first
that the second sentence is about a different day.


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PAGE 55 6 INFORMATION AND EMPHASIS PAGE 56
NOTE
Putting an adverbial in front position can also help to get the important information in the
right place.
For a week after this, life was like a restless dream.
Like a restless dream is the point of interest. Its best position is at the end of the sentence.
If the adverbial is at the end, the important information is less prominent.
b These kinds of adverbial often come in front position.


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Time: On the day after that she was in the canteen at the usual time.
Linking: The path was stony. Despite that we made good progress.
Truth: Presumably she had been changed on to a later shift.
Comment: The car was a complete wreck. Incredibly, no one was hurt.
c And these kinds of adverbial can be in front position for contrast or emphasis.
Place: It was warm and comfortable in the little cottage. Outside, it was
getting dark.
Manner: Slowly the sun sank into the Pacific.


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Manner: Slowly the sun sank into the Pacific.
Frequency: Everyone shops at the big supermarket now. Quite often the little
shop is empty for half an hour at a time.
2 An object or complement in front position
a We can sometimes put an object in front position, especially when it makes a link
or a contrast with what has gone before.
Dogs I love, but cats I can't stand.
Jason deals with the post every morning. The routine letters he answers
himself. The rest he passes on to the boss.


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himself. The rest he passes on to the boss.
There is no inversion. NOT Dogs love I.
b We can also sometimes put a complement in front position.
They enjoyed the holiday. Best of all was the constant sunshine.
The scheme has many good points. An advantage is the low cost.
Here the subject (the low cost) is the important information and comes at the end.
3 Inversion after an adverbial
a In this sentence the pattern is subject + verb + adverbial of place.
A furniture van was outside the house.


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A furniture van was outside the house.
When the adverbial of place is in front position, there is inversion of the subject
and the ordinary verb be.
Alan walked along Elmdale Avenue and found number sixteen without
difficulty. Outside the house was a furniture van.
The adverbial (outside the house) is in front position to link with what has gone
before. The new information (a furniture van) comes at the end of the sentence.


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We can do the same with other verbs of place and movement, e.g. come, go, lie, sit,
stand.
The room contained a table and four chairs. On the table lay a newspaper.
The palace is heavily guarded. Because inside its walls sit the European leaders.
With such verbs, a pattern without inversion is possible but less usual.
On the table a newspaper lay. PAGE 57 50 The empty subjects there and it
There is no inversion with most other kinds of verbs.
Outside the house two women were talking.


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Outside the house two women were talking.
NOT Outside the house were talking two women.
NOTE For There was a furniture van outside the house, • 50.
b We can use here and there in front position to draw attention to something in the
situation.
(airport announcement) Here is an announcement for passengers on flight
TW513 to Miami.
(sports commentator) And there goes Williams! Into the lead!
In this pattern we can use be, come or go in the present simple. There is inversion


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of the subject and verb. The noun phrase, the new information, goes at the end.
Here is an announcement. NOT Here-an announcement is.
But when the subject is a pronoun, there is no inversion.
And there goes Williams'. There he goes, look!
Where are my keys? Oh, here they are.
4 Overview: inversion
a Subject-verb inversion
After an adverbial of place in front position, • 49(3)
On the doorstep stood an old man. Here is the news.
After direct speech, • 265(4)
Are you ready?' Jane asked/asked Jane.


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Are you ready?' Jane asked/asked Jane.
b Subject-auxiliary inversion
In questions, • 23
What did the man want? Have you heard the news?
In additions with so and neither/nor, • 43(1)
I saw the man and so did Paul.
After a negative phrase in front position, • 17(6c)
In no circumstances should you sign the form.
In some conditional clauses, • 258
Had you signed the form, you would have lost all your rights.
50 The empty subjects there and it
1 The use of there


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1 The use of there
The verb be does not usually have a subject with a/an or some. A sentence like A
Chinese restaurant is round the corner is possible but unusual. A phrase with a/an
is usually new information, and so it comes later in the sentence.
Where can we eat? ~ There's a Chinese restaurant round the corner.
We put therein the subject position so that a Chinese restaurant can come after the
verb. There + be expresses the idea that something exists. 6 INFORMATION AND EMPHASIS PAGE 58


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2 There + be: more details
a We use the pattern in sentences with adverbials of place, time and other meanings.
There was a furniture van outside the house.
There's a concert next week.
There are some letters for you.
NOTE For The house had a furniture van outside it, • 85(1) Note d.
b We can use there + be without an adverbial. This happens with nouns expressing a
situation or event.
I'm afraid there's a problem. (= A problem exists.)
There's been an accident. (= An accident has happened.)


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NOTE
The adverbial is sometimes understood from the context.
You know this party we're going to. Will there be any food (at the party)?
c We normally use there + be before a noun phrase which is new information. This
noun phrase has an indefinite meaning. It can have a/an, some, any, no or a
number, or it can be a noun on its own. It can also have one of these quantifiers: a
lot of/lots of many, much, few, little; a good/great deal of, a number of, several;


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more, another, other, others; enough, plenty of.
There are some drawing-pins in my desk.
There are seven days in a week.
There was dust everywhere.
There's far too much traffic on the roads.
There will be a number of tasks to carry out.
Is there any more tea in the pot?
There isn't enough memory in the computer.
The noun phrase does not usually have the, this/that etc or my/your etc, which
refer to definite things known from the context.
NOTE


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NOTE
We can use the in this pattern when we remind someone of the existence of something
specific.
What can I stand on to reach the light bulb? ~ Well, there's the stepladder.
d We form negatives and questions in the normal way.
There wasn't a van outside the house.
Are there any letters for me?
e We can use there in a question tag.
There's a concert next week, isn't there?
f After there, the verb agrees with its complement. (But • 153(6) Note.)


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There is a letter / There are some letters for you.
, outside the house.was a van thereThere
pronounced
g There is not stressed and is normally spoken in its weak form
subject there is not the same as the adverb there (= in that place). The adverb is
(like the). The PAGE 59 50 The empty subjects there and it
h There can also be the subject of an infinitive or ing-form.
I didn't expect there to be such a crowd.
The village is very isolated, there being no bus service.


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But this is rather literary. A finite clause is more usual.
/ didn't expect (that) there would be such a crowd.
The village is very isolated because there's no bus service.
3 There + be with relative clauses
We can put an active or passive participle after the noun phrase.
There was a van blocking the road.
(= A van was blocking the road.)
There was a van parked outside the house.
(= A van was parked outside the house.)
But we use a finite relative clause for a single action.


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There was a noise that woke me up.
We also use a finite clause when the pronoun is not the subject.
There's a small matter which we need to discuss.
NOTE
For the infinitive after there, • 113(2).
There is a small matter to discuss/to be discussed.
4 There with other verbs
We use the subject there mostly with the verb be. Some other verbs are possible,
but only in a formal or literary style.
On top of the hill there stands an ancient church tower.
There now follows a party political broadcast.


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There now follows a party political broadcast.
The next day there occurred a strange incident.
Verbs in this pattern are: arise, arrive, come, emerge, enter, exist, follow, lie, live,
occur, remain, result, sit, stand, take place.
NOTE
We can use seem, appear, happen, chance, turn out, prove and tend with to be.
There doesn't seem to be enough memory in the computer.
There proved to be no truth in the rumour.
There appears to have been an accident.


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There appears to have been an accident.
We can sometimes use a noun phrase after seem, especially one with little or no.
There seemed (to be) little difference between the two alternatives.
There seems (to be) no reason for alarm.
5 The empty subject it
a A clause like to make new friends or that so few people came can be the subject of a
sentence, but this is not very usual. Instead, we normally use it as subject, and the
clause comes later in the sentence. ,


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clause comes later in the sentence. ,
It's difficult to make new friends.
(= To make new friends is difficult.)
It was a pity so few people came.
(= That so few people came was a pity.)
It amazes me how much money some people earn.
(= How much money some people earn amazes me.)
Because the clause is long, it comes more naturally at the end of the sentence than
at the beginning. 6 INFORMATION AND EMPHASIS PAGE 60
With a gerund clause we use both patterns.


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With a gerund clause we use both patterns.
Making new friends is difficult./It's difficult making new friends.
b It can also be an empty object in the pattern subject + verb + it + complement +
clause.
I find it difficult to make new friends.
We all thought it a pity so few people came.
The government has made it clear that no money will be available.
c It can also be an empty subject before seem, appear, happen, chance, turn out and
prove.
It seems the phone is out of order.


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prove.
It seems the phone is out of order.
(= The phone seems to be out of order.)
It happened that I had my camera with me at the time.
(= I happened to have my camera with me at the time.)
This pattern with it is a little formal.
There is also the pattern it looks/seems as if/as though.
It looks as if we're going to get some snow.
For It is said that..., • 109.
d We can use it+ be before a phrase in order to emphasize it. • 51(3)
It's the phone (not the doorbell) that's out of order.


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e It can also refer to the environment, the weather, the time or distance.
It's getting dark. It was cold yesterday.
Is it five o'clock yet? It's only a short walk to the beach.
6 There or it?
There + be expresses the fact that something exists or happens. It + be identifies or
describes something, says what it is or what it is like. We use there with a noun
phrase of indefinite meaning, e.g. a young lady, something. It refers to something


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definite, e.g. the young lady, something known in the situation. It can also refer
forward to a clause.
there it
There's a young lady at the door. It's Lorraine.
(= A young lady is at the door.) (= The young lady is Lorraine.)
There's a wind today. Yes, it's windy.
(= A wind is blowing.) (= The weather is windy.)
There weren't any classes. It was Saturday.
(= No classes took place.) (= The day was Saturday.)
There isn't any truth in the story. It isn't true what they say.


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(= The story has no truth in it). (= What they say isn't true.) PAGE 61 51 Emphasis
51 Emphasis
MUSIC PRACTICE
Susan: Why weren't you at the music practice yesterday?
Emma: I didn't know there was one. How did you find out about it?
Susan: It was you who told me. Don't you remember? You told me yourself last
week.
Emma: Oh, yes. I'd forgotten. I've got a terrible memory. I thought it was
Thursdays, not Tuesdays.
Susan: What you need is a personal organizer.


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Susan: What you need is a personal organizer.
Emma: I'd only lose it. Are all the practices going to be on Tuesdays?
Susan: Yes, and if you want to be in the orchestra, you have to attend.
Emma: Oh, I do want to be in it. I'd love to play in the orchestra.
1 Emphatic stress
a We can put emphatic stress on a word to contrast it with something else.
Are all the practices going to be on Tuesdays? ~ No, they're going to be
on Thursdays.
I wanted plain paper, not ruled.


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on Thursdays.
I wanted plain paper, not ruled.
b We can also use emphatic stress to give extra force to a word expressing an
extreme quality or feeling.
I've got a terrible memory. The talk was extremely interesting.
It's a huge building. I'd love a cup of coffee.
NOTE
Some words can be repeated for emphasis. They are very, really and some words expressing
quantity and length of time.
I've been very very busy, NOT I've been busy busy.
This has happened many, many times before.


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This has happened many, many times before.
We waited and waited, but no one came. We had a long, long wait.
The noise just went on and on.
We can also sometimes do this with adjectives expressing extreme feelings.
What a terrible, terrible tragedy!
2 The emphatic form of the verb
a We can stress the auxiliary or the ordinary verb be.
You can dial direct to Brazil. Carlos said you couldn't.
I haven't taken your calculator, I tell you. I haven't touched it.


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Are you tired? ~ Yes, I am. I'm exhausted.
In a simple tense we use the auxiliary do.
I do want to be in the orchestra. The garden does look nice.
I did post the letter. I'm absolutely certain.
Do you want to fly in a balloon? ~ No, I don't. The idea terrifies me.
The emphatic forms emphasize the positive or negative meaning. In the
conversation Music practice Emma is emphatic that yes, she wants to be in the
orchestra.
NOTE


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orchestra.
NOTE
We can also add emphasis by using adverbs such as really, indeed, certainly and definitely.
The garden really does look nice. You can indeed dial direct to Brazil. 6 INFORMATION AND EMPHASIS PAGE 62
b But sometimes the form emphasizes another part of the meaning rather than yes
or no.
We might go away for the weekend. We haven't decided definitely.
(It is possible, not certain.)
I did have a personal organizer, but I lost it.
(in the past, not now)
NOTE


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(in the past, not now)
NOTE
We can stress an ordinary verb to emphasize its meaning.
I've borrowed your calculator. I haven't stolen it.
I wrote the letter. I didn't type it.
3 The pattern with it
a In the conversation Music practice, Susan wants to emphasize the identity of the
person who told her about the practice.
It was you who told me.
The pattern is it + be + phrase + relative clause. The phrase that we want to
emphasize (you) comes after be.


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emphasize (you) comes after be.
b Look at this statement about England's football team.
England won the World Cup in 1966.
We can emphasize the subject, object or adverbial.
Subject: It was England who won the World Cup in 1966.
Object: It was the World Cup (that) England won in 1966.
Adverbial: It was in 1966 (that) England won the World Cup.
We use who, which or that with the subject. With an object or adverbial we
normally use that. (For relative pronouns, • 273.)


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We can include a phrase with not.
It was England, not Germany, who won the World Cup in 1966.
It was in 1966, not 1970, that it happened.
NOTE
We can sometimes also emphasize a prepositional object.
How do you like the choir? ~ It's the orchestra I'm in.
We can also emphasize a whole clause.
It was because they were playing in London that England had an advantage.
c When a pronoun comes after be, it is usually in the object form.
It was me who told you, remember?


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It was me who told you, remember?
d The phrase that we emphasize often relates to what has gone before.
The Sixties was the decade of the Beatles and Swinging London. And it was in
1966 that England won the World Cup.
4 The pattern with what
a In the conversation Music practice, Susan wants to emphasize that Emma needs a
personal organizer (and not anything else).
What you need is a personal organizer.
We can emphasize the new information with a what-clause + be. The new


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information comes after be. PAGE 63 51 Emphasis
b Look at these examples.
A technical fault caused the delay.
The guests played mini-golf after tea.
We can emphasize different parts of the sentence.
What caused the delay was a technical fault.
What the guests played after tea was mini-golf.
What the guests did after tea was (to) play mini-golf.
What happened after tea was (that) the guests played mini-golf.
NOTE
a We cannot use who in this pattern. We must put a noun in front of it.


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The people who played mini-golf were the guests.
NOT Who played mini-golf were the guests.
b We can emphasize an action, e.g. What the guests did was (to) play mini-golf. Compare
these examples with other verb forms.
What the guests are doing is playing mini-golf.
What I've done is sent / is (to) send a letter of complaint.
What we could do is (to) hire a car.
c We can sometimes emphasize a prepositional object.
What I long for is a little excitement.


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What I long for is a little excitement.
d We can reverse the order of the what-clause and a noun phrase. Compare the two orders.
I've got a terrible memory. ~ What you need is a personal organizer.
They've got some personal organizers here, look. ~ Oh, good. A personal organizer is what
I need.
e We can use when and where.
1966 was (the year) when England won the World Cup.
The sports hall is (the place) where the students do the examination.
5 Overview: emphasis
Form Example


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5 Overview: emphasis
Form Example
• 51(1) Emphatic stress I saw a ghost.
• 51 (2) Emphatic verb I did see a ghost.
• 51(3) It It was a ghost (that) I saw.
• 51 (4) What What I saw was a ghost.
• 49 Phrase in front The ghost I clearly saw.
position The next moment it had disappeared.
• 186(3) Emphatic pronouns I saw it myself.
• 26(6c) On earth/ever What on earth did you see?
• 212 Adverbs of degree I really saw it.
I was so scared. PAGE 64
7Spoken English and written English
52 Summary


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7Spoken English and written English
52 Summary
Grammar in speech and writing • 53
There is normally more repetition in speech than in writing. In informal speech we
often use expressions like Well..., you know and sort of.
Stress and intonation • 54
The voice rises or falls on the new and important information. A rising intonation
usually means that the speaker is unsure or that the conversation is incomplete.
Weak forms and short forms • 55


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Weak forms and short forms • 55
In informal English we often use weak forms or short forms of some words. For
example have has a spoken weak form /v/ and a written short form 've.
Punctuation • 56
There are some rules of punctuation, such as how to punctuate correctly between
two clauses.
53 Grammar in speech and writing
1 This is part of a real conversation between three people.
STUCK ON THE UNDERGROUND
Tom: I had one appointment at nine o'clock, I had another one at ten o'clock, had


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another one at half past twelve, another one at quarter past four and then I
knew I had to be at Pathway at six o'clock, I reckoned. So I timed it -
Sarah: These appointments were in town?
Tom: Yeah. So I timed it very carefully that I was going to leave at about ten past
five - this was in, er, this was in central London. And I reckoned I'd be at
Hounslow West just before five to six and I'd jump into a taxi and be at Pathway


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just after six o'clock. So I got on the Underground at Green Park at about ten
past five, no, twenty past five, and erm, we moved along fairly well to Hyde Park
Corner and then we moved along about fifty yards and we stopped.
Simon: Why was this?
Tom: And we were there for - well, I'm not quite sure, I think there was a train
stopped in front of us and we were therefor - really for three quarters of an
hour.
(from M. Underwood Have you heard?) PAGE 65 53 Grammar in speech and writing


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a A speaker normally uses more words than a writer. For example, Tom repeats
some words.
I had one appointment ...I had another one... had another one... another
one...
In writing we might express the meaning like this.
I had appointments at nine o'clock, ten o'clock, half past twelve and quarter
past four.
Tom uses separate clauses, and this gives him more time to remember the details
of what he is saying. It also makes it easier for the listeners to take in the


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information because it does not come all at once. In writing, more information can
be in fewer words.
In speech there are often a number of clauses with and one after the other.
So I got... and we... and then we... and we...
This is less usual in writing.
b There are a number of words and phrases used only or mainly in spoken English.
For example, the word well often comes at the beginning of a clause.
Well, I'm not quite sure. (hesitating before answering)


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Well, wasn't that fun! (expressing feelings)
Well, I think I've done enough for today. (changing the topic)
c There are some vague expressions more typical of speech than writing. For
example, a speaker uses you know when unsure of the best way to express
something.
I was late for an appointment and I was feeling a bit impatient, you know.
Kind of/sort of is used when a word may not be exactly the right one.
There was a kind of/sort of sit-in at the college. Some of the students met there to


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protest about something.
The ribbon kind of/sort of slides in here.
The phrase or something makes the meaning more vague.
There was a sit-in or something at the college.
Are you drunk or something?
In informal speech we can use thing or stuff instead of a more exact word.
(of a food mixer) This thing isn't working properly.
(of luggage) Put your stuff upstairs.
d The speaker sometimes stops to correct things.
So I got on the Underground at Green Park at about ten past five, no, twenty


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past five.
...at about ten past five, I mean twenty past five.
The speaker can also stop to go back and explain something that was missed out.
So I timed it very carefully that I was going to leave at about ten past five - this
was in, er, this was in central London. 7 SPOKEN ENGLISH AND WRITTEN ENGLISH PAGE 66
2 Here is an example of written English.
CYCLING
The rising cost of petrol and increasing traffic congestion in towns have brought


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back for the bicycle some of the popularity it was beginning to lose. Cycling is
healthy, practical, and, for many people, a popular recreation.
(from H. Turner The Consumer's A-Z)
This is typical of a written textbook style. A spoken version would be different.
'Well, the cost of petrol is going up, and there is so much traffic in towns these
days, isn't there? And so bicycles have become more popular now after a time


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when not so many people were using them. I think cycling is good for you, and it's
practical, and lots of people enjoy it.'
One important difference is that a writer often expresses in a noun phrase what a
speaker expresses in a clause.
Written Spoken
the rising cost of petrol ' the cost of petrol is going up'
a popular recreation ' lots of people enjoy it'
For more details about nominalization, • 149.
54 Stress and intonation
1 Stress


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54 Stress and intonation
1 Stress
In speech some words have greater stress than others; they are spoken with greater
force.
I'll 'see you next 'week.
They've 'built an e'normous new 'shopping centre.
The stress usually falls on the vocabulary items, the nouns, verbs, adjectives and
adverbs, e.g. week, built, enormous. It does not usually fall on the 'grammatical
words', e.g. I'll, an.
If the word has two or more syllables, there is still only one stressed syllable,
e.g. e'normous.
NOTE


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e.g. e'normous.
NOTE
We can give a word extra stress to emphasize it. • 51 (1)
They've built an enormous new shopping centre.
2 Intonation
a Syllables with a fall or rise
The voice can rise or fall on a stressed syllable. The greatest movement of the voice
is usually on a word near the end of the clause.
I'll see you next m week.
They've built an enormous new m shopping centre.
Have we got k time'?
Here the voice falls on week and shopping and rises on time. PAGE 67 54 Stress and intonation


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The greatest fall or rise is on the new and important information. Which word is
important depends on the context.
People round here are well off. Our neighbours have just bought a m caravan.
If you want to know about caravans, ask our neighbours. They've just m bought
a caravan.
I know someone who's got a caravan. Our m neighbours have just bought one.
b Intonation in statements and questions
These two sentences are the same except for the intonation.
I'll see you next m week.


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I'll see you next m week.
I'll see you next k week?
The intonation shows that the first sentence is a statement and the second a
yes/no question. A falling intonation is normal in a statement. A rising intonation
means that the speaker is unsure if something is true or not.
A yes/no question asking for information usually has a rising intonation. But a
wh-question usually has a falling Falling intonation because it is not about whether
something is true or false.


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something is true or false.
Yes/no: Will I see you next k week? Do you sell k matches?
Wh-: When will I m see you? What does it m cost?
A fall on a yes/no question sounds abrupt and impatient.
Are you m ready? Come on, hurry up.
A rise on a wh-question sounds tentative.
What are you k doing? Please tell me.
Requests, suggestions, offers etc in the form of ayes/no question often have a
falling intonation.
Can you pass me the m salt, please? Could you m wait for us?


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The meaning of a tag depends on the intonation. • 34(3)
You'll be here next week, m won't you? (fairly sure)
You'll be here next week, k won't you? (less sure)
c Rising intonation in statements
A rising intonation shows that something is incomplete. The rise is not as great as
in ayes/no question.
k Hopefully. (I'll be here next week.)
In k my opinion. (it's quite wrong.)
If you're k ready. (we can go.)
Even in a complete sentence, we can use a rising intonation.


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It's a long way to k walk. I like your new k suit.
The meaning here is that the conversation is incomplete. The speaker expects the
listener to respond.
It's a long way to k walk. (Do you think we ought to go by car?)
It's a long way to m walk. (I won't walk, and that's final.)
The rising intonation makes the statement more like a question. Compare these
replies.
Have you heard the news? ~ k No. (What's happened?)
Have you heard the news? ~ m Yes.
I've got a new job. ~ Oh, k have you? (Where?)


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I've got a new job. ~ Oh, k have you? (Where?)
I've got a new job. ~ Oh, m have you?
The fall suggests that the conversation is complete. In this context it sounds
uninterested and so rather impolite. 7 SPOKEN ENGLISH AND WRITTEN ENGLISH
55 Weak forms and short forms
A weak form is a spoken form such as the pronunciation of am as /m/ instead of
/æm/. Weak forms are normal in speech. A short form is a written form, such as 'm


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instead of am in the sentence I'm sorry. We use short forms in informal writing.
Strong Weak
Spoken /æm/ /m/
Full Short
Written am 'm
1 Strong and weak forms
a In speech many words have both strong and weak forms. We use the strong form
only in very careful speech, or when the word is stressed. 55 Weak forms and short forms
2 Full forms and short forms
a In informal writing, some words have a short form.
Fit a gas wall heater and you'll stop shivering. It'll warm up your bedroom so


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quickly you won't need a towel. It fits snugly and safely on the wall. And, because
it's gas, it's easy to control and very economical.
(from an advertisement)
Full form: It is easy to control.
Short form: It's easy to control.
In the short form, we miss out part of a word and use an apostrophe instead. We
do not leave a space before the apostrophe.
The short form corresponds to the spoken weak form: /itz/ instead of /it iz/. We


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use short forms in informal writing such as a letter to a friend. They can also be
used in direct speech - in a filmscript or play, for example, when speech is written
down. Full forms are used in more formal writing.
NOTE
We cannot use a short form when the word is stressed. NOT Yes, it's as a short answer. But we
can use unstressed n't in a short answer, e.g. Wo, it isn't.
b In short forms we use 'm (= am), 're (= are), 's (= is/has), 've (= have), 'd (= had/would)


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and n't (= not) in combination with other words. These are the main short forms.
Pronoun + auxiliary verb
I'm you're we're they're he's she's it's; I've you've we've they've
I'd you'd he'd she'd we'd they'd; I'll you'll he'll she'll it'll we'll they'll
Here/There/That + auxiliary verb
here's there's there'll there'd that's
Question word + auxiliary verb
who's who'll who'd; what's what'll; where's; when's; how's
Auxiliary verb + not
aren't isn't wasn't weren't; haven't hasn't hadn't


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don't doesn't didn't
PAGE 69
won't wouldn't shan't shouldn't
needn'tcouldn't mightn't mustn't
oughtn't daren't
can't
A short form can also be with a noun, although this is less common than with a
pronoun.
The bathroom's cold. This heater'll soon warm it up.
NOTE
a The short form 's can mean is or has.
It's a big house. It's got five bedrooms. (= It is ... It has ...)
The short form 'd can mean had or would.
If you'd asked, you'd have found out. (= If you had asked, you would have found out.)


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b Sometimes we can shorten a form with not in two different ways. The meaning is the same.
It is not... = It isn't... / It's not...
You will not ... = You won't .../ You'll not...
But I am not has only the one short form I'm not.
c In non-standard English there is a short form ain't (= am not/is not/are not/has not/have
not).
That ain't right. (= That isn't right.) 7 SPOKEN ENGLISH AND WRITTEN ENGLISH PAGE70
56 Punctuation
1 The sentence


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56 Punctuation
1 The sentence
A sentence ends with a full stop, a question mark or an exclamation mark.
Punctuation Example
STATEMENT Full stop We've got the best bargains.
IMPERATIVE Full stop Send for our brochure today.
QUESTION Question mark Have you booked a holiday?
EXCLAMATION Exclamation mark What a bargain!
NOTE
a If a question has no inversion, then we still use a question mark.
You've booked a holiday?
b A request in the form of a question usually has a question mark.


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Can you send me a brochure, please?
c There is a question mark after a question tag.
It's a bargain, isn't it?
2 Punctuation between main clauses
a There are a number of ways of punctuating two main clauses.
Full stop between separate sentences
Shakespeare wrote plays. He also acted on the stage.
Semi-colon between separate clauses
Shakespeare wrote plays; he also acted on the stage.
Comma between clauses linked by and, but or so
Shakespeare wrote plays, and he also acted on the stage.


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No punctuation when the verb follows and, but or so
Shakespeare wrote plays and acted on the stage.
A full stop or semi-colon shows that there are two separate pieces of information.
A comma or no punctuation shows the meanings as more closely linked.
b Clauses linked by and, but or so can be without a comma, especially if they are short.
He wrote plays, and he also acted.
He wrote plays and he also acted.
But if there is no linking word, we must put a full stop or semi-colon.


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NOT He wrote plays, he also acted.
c We can use a dash between clauses, but it is rather informal.
Shakespeare wrote plays - he also acted on the stage.
We can use either a dash or a colon before a clause which is an explanation.
The theatre was full - there were several school parties there.
The theatre was full: there were several school parties there. 56 Punctuation
3 Sub clauses and phrases
The rules about commas with sub clauses and phrases are not very exact. In


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general, we can use commas around an adverbial phrase or clause. Commas are
more likely around longer phrases.
a Adverbials
We can use a comma after an adverbial clause or phrase at the beginning of a
sentence.
After the guests had all left, we had to tidy up.
After their departure, we had to tidy up.
Afterwards, we had to tidy up.
The comma is more necessary if the adverbial is long. After a short phrase there is
often no comma.
Afterwards we had to tidy up.


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often no comma.
Afterwards we had to tidy up.
A comma is much less usual when the adverbial comes at the end of the sentence.
We had to tidy up after the guests had left.
We had to tidy up afterwards.
We do not normally use a comma before an infinitive clause of purpose.
Lots of people come here to look round the market.
But commas are usual with linking adverbs, truth adverbs and comment adverbs.
Yes, I have received your letter.
All of us, as a result, were feeling pretty tired.


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There wasn't much to eat, however.
On the whole, the party was a success.
Nothing got broken, luckily.
NOTE
a When something is added as an afterthought, we can use a comma, a dash or brackets.
My husband does the cooking, sometimes.
I'd love a holiday- if I could afford it.
Everything should be OK (I hope).
b The name of the reader/listener is separated off by commas.
I hope to see you soon, Melanie. Dear Alex, Thank you for your letter.
b Noun clauses


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b Noun clauses
A noun clause is not separated off by commas. This rule includes indirect speech.
It is a fact that there are more cars in Los Angeles than people.
We know the earth goes round the sun.
Everyone was wondering what to do.
For direct speech, • (4).
c Relative clauses
An identifying relative clause is not separated off.
People who write plays sometimes act in them too.
But an adding clause has commas. It can also have dashes or brackets.


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Shakespeare, who wrote many famous plays, also acted on the stage.
For details about the different kinds of relative clause, • 272(5).
PAGE 71 7 SPOKEN ENGLISH AND WRITTEN ENGLISH PAGE 72
d Apposition
We sometimes use commas around a phrase in apposition, but not always.
Irving Berlin, the famous composer, couldn't read music.
The composer Irving Berlin couldn't read music.
For details, • 14.
e Phrases which explain
A dash or colon comes before a phrase which explains, which adds the missing


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information.
Only one American President has been unmarried- James Buchanan.
The product is available in three colours: white, green and blue.
f Lists
In a list of more than two noun phrases, we use commas. The last two items are
linked by and or or, often without a comma.
The official languages of the United Nations are Chinese, French, Spanish,
Russian (,) and English.
NOTE For details about adjectives, e.g. a narrow, steep, winding road, • 202.
4 Direct speech


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4 Direct speech
Direct speech means reporting someone's words by repeating them exactly. In this
story a policeman called Hawes wants to question someone.
He knocked again, and this time a voice said, 'Who's there?' The voice was pitched
very low; he could not tell if it belonged to a man or a woman.
'Charlie?' he said.
'Charlie ain't here right now,' the voice said. 'Who's that, anyway?'
'Police officer,' Hawes said. 'Mind opening the door?'
'Go away,' the voice said.


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'Go away,' the voice said.
'I've got a warrant for the arrest of Charles Harrod,' Hawes lied. 'Open the door, or
I'll kick it in.'
(from Ed McBain Bread)
Direct speech is inside quotation marks, also called 'quotes' or 'inverted commas'.
Single quotes are more usual than double ones.
'Police officer,' he said./ "Police officer, he said.
We use a phrase like he said, separated by a comma (or a colon), to identify the
speaker. This usually comes after the direct speech, but it can come first.


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'Police officer,' Hawes said.
Hawes said, 'Police officer.'/Hawes said: 'Police officer.'
When the direct speech is longer, we can mention the speaker in the middle of it.
'Open the door,' he said, 'or I'll kick it in.'
NOTE
a We can also use quotes around a word or phrase to show that it was first used by someone
else.
The so-called 'hotel' was just an old shed.
All Americans have the right to 'life, liberty and the pursuit of happiness.'


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b For inversion, e.g. said Hawes, • 265(4). PAGE 73 56 Punctuation
5 The hyphen
The rules about when to use a hyphen are not very exact. In general, hyphens are
used less in the USA than in Britain.
a The hyphen shows that two words belong together. It is usual in compound
expressions before a noun.
gale-force winds a no-strike agreement
a record-breaking performance the long-awaited results
Anglo-Irish talks out-of-date attitudes a ten-mile walk
a thirty-year-old mother of four


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a thirty-year-old mother of four
But when these words come after the verb, they are usually separate words.
winds reaching gale force attitudes that are out of date
b We also use a hyphen in compound numbers below 100 and in fractions.
forty-seven five hundred and eighty-nine one and three-quarters
c With compounds of two nouns these are the possibilities.
One word: motorway Hyphen: motor-scooter Two words: motor car
Some compounds can be written more than one way, e.g. phone card/phone-card/


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phonecard. Most compounds are written either as one word or as two. If you are
unsure, it is safer not to use a hyphen.
But we often use hyphens with these types of compound noun.
Noun + gerund, e.g. stamp-collecting, windsurfing
Verb + adverb, e.g. take-off, a walk-out
Letter + noun, e.g. an X-ray
d We sometimes use a hyphen after a prefix, e.g. non, pre, anti, semi.
a non-violent protest a pre-cooked meal
But there are no exact rules, and we often write such words without a hyphen.


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antisocial attitudes sit in a semicircle
For more examples, • 284.
NOTE
a We do not normally use a hyphen after un, in or dis, e.g. unfriendly, invisible, disorder.
b We use a hyphen when the prefix comes before a capital letter.
anti-British feeling the Trans-Siberian Railway
c A hyphen also comes between two vowels which are the same, e.g. re-enter, co-operate.
e We use a hyphen when a word is divided between one line of print or handwriting
and the next.
...It is important to under-


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and the next.
...It is important to under-
stand that the computer...
There are rules about where to divide a word. Some dictionaries mark the places
like this: un-der-stand. 7 SPOKEN ENGLISH AND WRITTEN ENGLISH PAGE 74
6 Capital letters
We use a capital letter in these places,
a At the beginning of a sentence,
b For the pronoun I.
c With the names of people: Jason Donovan, Agatha Christie. Titles also have a
capital: Doctor Owen, Mrs Whitehouse, Uncle William.
NOTE


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NOTE
Words like doctor and father have a capital when they are a title, or when we use them to
address someone.
Talking to someone Talking about someone
Mrs Whitehouse Mrs Whitehouse
Doctor Owen/Doctor Doctor Owen/the doctor
Professor Jones Professor Jones/the professor/the Professor
Father/Dad my father/my dad/my Dad
Grandma my grandma/my Grandma/Grandma
Uncle William my uncle/Uncle William/my Uncle William
d With the names of places: Australia, New York, Oxford. When a noun is part of a


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name, it has a capital letter too: the River Aire, the Humber Bridge, Fifth Avenue,
Paddington Station.
e With some expressions of time such as the names of days and months: Tuesday,
April; special days: New Year's Day, Easter Sunday; historical periods and
important events: the Modern Age, the First World War.
f With nationality words: a French singer, I'm learning Greek.
g With the titles of books, newspapers, films and so on: Animal Farm, The Daily
Telegraph.


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Telegraph.
NOTE In titles, grammatical words often have a small letter: Strangers oka Train.
h In most abbreviations which are formed from the first letters of each word in a
phrase: the BBC (British Broadcasting Corporation). 8The verb phrase
57 Summary
Verb forms • 58
Verbs have the following forms: a base form (e.g. look), an s-form (looks), a past
form (looked), an ing-form (looking) and a past/passive participle (looked).
Finite and non-finite verbs • 59


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Finite and non-finite verbs • 59
A finite verb phrase is one that can be the main verb of a sentence. A non-finite
verb is an infinitive, gerund or participle.
The structure of the verb phrase • 60
A finite verb phrase can be an ordinary verb on its own.
Your hair looks nice.
There can be one or more auxiliaries before the ordinary verb.
I have looked everywhere.
We are looking for the key.
You should have looked in the drawer.
Meaning in the verb phrase • 61


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Meaning in the verb phrase • 61
The choice of tense and auxiliaries depends on meaning - what happens and how
we see it.
Action verbs and state verbs • 62
There are action verbs (e.g. walk, make) and state verbs (e.g. own, like). State verbs
are not normally continuous.
58 Verb forms
MODERN CRIME DETECTION
If you leave valuable articles in a changing room, it is quite likely that someone
will steal them while you are playing tennis or whatever. A few years ago, police


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in a Yorkshire town were informed by a local sports club that all kinds of things
kept disappearing from the men's changing room, and the club were anxious to
stop it. 'This has gone on for too long,' said the club chairman.
The police took immediate action. They installed a secret video camera so that
they could find out what was happening, and a few days later they played back
the video at police headquarters, eager to see the thief filmed in the act. All it


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showed, however, was a naked policeman, a member of the club, looking for his
clothes, which had been stolen.
PAGE 75 8 THE VERB PHRASE
1 Verbs have the following forms.
Regular verbs Irregular verbs
Base form play steal find
S-form plays steals finds
Past form played stole found
Ing-form playing stealing finding
Past/passive participle played stolen found
2 Some of the verb forms have more than one use.
Base form: Imperative Play tennis with me.
Present tense You play very well.


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Present tense You play very well.
Infinitive I'd like to play.
S-form: Present tense Simon plays very well.
(3rd person singular)
Past form: Past tense . They played back the film.
Ing-form: Gerund Playing tennis is fun.
Active participle You're playing very well.
Past/passive Past participle They've played back the film.
participle: Passive participle The film was played back.
59 Finite and non-finite verbs
1 A finite verb phrase is one that can be the main verb of a sentence. A non-finite


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verb phrase is an infinitive, gerund or participle.
Finite Non-finite
you leave kept disappearing
it is anxious to stop
someone will steal see the thief filmed
you are playing
the police were informed
NOTE
A form with ed can be finite or non-finite, depending on the context.
They filmed the thief. (past tense - finite)
They saw the thief filmed in the act. (participle -non-finite)
2 A finite verb phrase can come in a main clause or a sub clause.
The police took action.


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The police took action.
We were pleased when the police took action.
A non-finite verb comes only in a sub clause.
We wanted the police to take action.
We approved of the police taking action.
We approved of the action taken by the police.
Sometimes there are two verb phrases together, a finite one and then a
non-finite one.
The police wanted to take action.
Things kept disappearing from the changing room.
For the to-infinitive and gerund in these patterns, • 121.


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PAGE 76 PAGE 77 60 The structure of the verb phrase
60 The structure of the verb phrase
1 In a finite verb phrase there are a number of choices.
Tense: Past or present? It showed or It shows
Modal: Modal or not? They could find or They found
Aspect: Perfect or not? It has gone or It goes
Continuous or not? It was happening or It happened
Voice: Passive or active? They were informed or He informed them
For meanings, • 61.


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For meanings, • 61.
2 In the verb phrase there is always an ordinary verb. There may be one or more
auxiliaries in front of it.
Auxiliary verb(s) Ordinary verb
you leave valuable articles
the police arrived
someone will steal them
this has gone on too long
he was looking for his clothes
the police were informed
the camera should have worked
someone has been taking things
a man is being questioned by police
his clothes had been stolen
I must have been dreaming


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I must have been dreaming
If there is no auxiliary, the verb is in a simple tense: leave (present simple),
arrived (past simple).
Auxiliary verbs come in this order:
modal verb - have - be (continuous) - be (passive)
The auxiliary verb affects the form of the next word, whether the next word is
another auxiliary or an ordinary verb.
Modal verb + base form: will steal, should have worked
have + past participle: has gone, has been taking, have worked


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be + active participle: was looking, has been taking
be + passive participle: were informed, had been stolen
The first word of the verb phrase is present or past, e.g. leave (present), arrived (past),
has (present), was (past). The exception is modal verbs, which do not usually have
a tense. Sometimes the first word agrees with the subject: you leave/he leaves. • 150
NOTE
a The perfect, the continuous and the passive do not usually all come in the same phrase. A


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sentence like It might have been being played is possible but unusual.
b Be and have can be ordinary verbs. • 82
The money was in the changing room. The club has a chairman.
c An adverbial can come inside the verb phrase. • 208 (4)
Someone will probably steal them. A man is now being questioned.
d For the imperative, e.g. Play something for me, • 19.
For emphatic do + base form, e.g. You did play yesterday, • 51(2). 8 THE VERB PHRASE PAGE 78


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3 The (first) auxiliary is important in negatives and questions. In negatives, the
auxiliary has not after it. • 17(2)
They haven't played the video.
In questions the auxiliary comes before the subject. • 23
Have they played the video?
In simple tenses, the auxiliary is do.
They didn't play the video. Did they play the video?
61 Meaning in the verb phrase
A NEW FLAT
Ian: How's your new flat?
Jason: Oh, it's okay, thanks. We've been there a month now, and I think we're


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going to like it. We're decorating at the moment. You must come and see us
when we've finished.
Ian: Thanks. That'd be nice. You were lucky to find somewhere.
Jason: Yes, we were getting pretty desperate. We'd been looking for ages and
couldn't find anywhere. The flat wasn't advertised. We heard about it through
a friend. It's quite convenient too. We get the train to work.
Ian: What floor is the flat on?
Jason: Well, we live right at the top, but there are only four floors. If there was a


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lift, it would be perfect.
1 Tense
The first word of a finite verb phrase is either present or past. Usually the tenses
mean present time and past time, 'now' and 'then'.
Present: I think we're going to like it.
We live right at the top.
Past: We heard about it through a friend.
We were getting pretty desperate.
NOTE
In some contexts the choice of present or past depends on the speaker's attitude.
Have you a moment? I want to ask you something.
Have you a moment? I wanted to ask you something.


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Have you a moment? I wanted to ask you something.
Here the present tense is more direct. The past tense is more distant. It makes the request
more tentative and so more polite. For these tenses in conditional clauses, • 257(4c).
2 Modal verbs
With modal verbs we can express ideas such as actions being possible or
necessary.
We couldn't find anywhere. You must come and see us.
For the meaning of modal verbs, • 102.
3 The perfect
These verb phrases have perfect aspect.


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These verb phrases have perfect aspect.
We have just finished the decorating.
We have been there a month now.
We had been looking for ages. The perfect means 'up to now' or 'up to then'. The decorating came to an end in
the period leading up to the present time.
We can sometimes choose the present perfect or the past simple, depending on
how we see the action. • 65
We've finished the decorating. (in the period up to now)
We finished the decorating. (in the past)
4 The continuous


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4 The continuous
These verb phrases are continuous (sometimes called 'progressive').
We are decorating at the moment.
We had been looking for ages.
We were getting pretty desperate.
The continuous means 'for a period of time'. We are in the middle of decorating;
the search for the flat went on for a period of time.
Sometimes the use of the continuous depends on how we see the action. We do
not use the continuous if we see the action as complete.
Period of time: We had been looking for ages.


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Period of time: We had been looking for ages.
Complete action: We had looked everywhere.
State verbs (e.g. know) are not normally continuous. • 62
For present continuous and simple, • 64.
5 The passive
We use the passive when the subject is not the agent but what the action is
directed at. • 103
The flat wasn't advertised.
In the conversation A new flat, Jason chooses a passive sentence here because the
flat is the best subject. It relates to what has gone before.


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62 Action verbs and state verbs
1 Verbs can express actions or states.
Actions States
Jane went to bed. Jane was tired.
I'm buying a new briefcase. I need a new briefcase.
I lent Jeremy five pounds. Jeremy owes me five pounds.
An action means something happening, something changing. Action verbs are
verbs like do, go, buy, play, stop, take, decorate, say, ask, decide etc.
A state means something staying the same. These verbs are state verbs:
adore depend doubt lack owe seem


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adore depend doubt lack owe seem
be deserve envy like own understand
believe desire exist love pity want
belong to despise hate matter possess wish
consist of detest intend mean prefer
contain dislike know need resemble
62 Action verbs and state verbsPAGE 79 Most action verbs refer to physical actions, but some are verbs of reporting (say) or
verbs of thinking (decide). State verbs express meanings such as being, having,
opinions and feelings.


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opinions and feelings.
2 We can use action verbs with the continuous, but state verbs are not normally
continuous.
We are decorating the flat, but NOT We are owning the flat.
Some state verbs cannot be passive. • 104(6b)
3 Some verbs have different meanings. One meaning can be an action and another
meaning can be a state.
Actions States
We're having lunch now. We have a big kitchen.
(action-'eating') (state-'own')
We're thinking about moving. I think we ought to move.


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(action - 'deciding') (state - 'believe')
Jeff tasted the soup. The soup tasted like water.
expect/expecting trouble expect so (= believe)
imagine/imagining the result imagine so (= believe)
care/caring for the sick not care what happens
admire/admiring the view admire someone's courage
(= looking at it with pleasure) (= approve of)
look/looking at a picture look lovely
smell/smelling the powder smell strange
appear/appearing in a film appear perfectly calm


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appear/appearing in a film appear perfectly calm
measure/measuring the door measure two metres
weigh/weighing the luggage weigh ten kilos
fit/fitting a new switch fit perfectly
cost/costing a project cost a lot of money
We can use the continuous with some state verbs if we see something as active
thinking or feeling for a period of time, rather than a permanent attitude.
I love holidays. (permanent attitude)
I'm loving every minute of this holiday. (active enjoyment)


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Here are some more examples.
How are you liking the play? ~ Well, it's all right so far.
We were expecting visitors. You're looking pleased with yourself.
This holiday is costing me a lot. I'm hoping to get a job.
Be can be an action verb meaning 'behave'. • 84(3)
The dog was being a nuisance, so we shut him out.
NOTE
a Mean (= have the meaning) is always a state verb.
What does this word mean?
b Enjoy expresses an action.
I'm enjoying the party. NOT I enjoy the party.


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I'm enjoying the party. NOT I enjoy the party.
8 THE VERB PHRASE PAGE 80 PAGE 81 62 Action verbs and state verbs
5 Some verbs always express states and so cannot be continuous.
At the moment the building contains some old machinery.
I know the town quite well now.
These verbs are belong to, consist of, contain, depend on, deserve, desire, know,
matter, own, possess, prefer, seem.
NOTE
The expression get to know can be continuous.
I'm getting to know the town quite well.


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I'm getting to know the town quite well.
6 Hurt, ache and feel can be simple or continuous with little difference in meaning.
My arm hurt/was hurting. I feel/I'm feeling depressed.
7 We often use can and could for perceptions.
I can see something under the sofa.
We could hear music. 1 can smell something burning.
Sam could feel the weight of the rucksack.
We do not normally use the continuous. NOT I'm seeing something.


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We can use the past simple when the thing that we saw or heard was a complete
action.
We saw a magnificent sunset.
Tom heard the whole story.
They felt the building shake.
Smell, taste and feel as action verbs express a deliberate action.
Steve picked up the bottle and smelted the milk.
When we arrived, people were already tasting the wine.
Judy was feeling her way in the dark.
NOTE
a See (= meet) is an action verb, and see (= understand) is a state verb.
I'm seeing the doctor in half an hour.


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I'm seeing the doctor in half an hour.
You put the cassette in here, like this. ~ Oh, I see.
b Look (at something), watch and listen are action verbs.
We looked/We were looking at the sunset.
c Feel (= believe) is a state verb.
I feel we should discuss the matter. PAGE 82
9Verb tenses and aspects
63 Summary
A finite verb phrase is present tense or past tense. It can also have perfect aspect
(have+ past participle) or continuous aspect (be + ing-form). The tenses and


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aspects can combine in the following ways.
Present continuous and present simple • 64
We are playing cards now.
We play in the orchestra every week.
Present perfect and past simple • 65
We have played two games already.
We played tennis yesterday.
Past continuous •66
We were playing cards at the time.
Present perfect continuous • 67
We have been playing cards all evening.
Past perfect and past perfect continuous • 68
We had played the game before then.
We had been playing for ages.


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We had been playing for ages.
OVERVIEW: uses of tenses and aspects • 69
Each of the eight forms above has a different meaning, depending on such things
as the time and length of an action, and how the speaker sees it.
64 Present continuous and present simple
MACBETH
Andrew: What are you reading?
Sadie: 'Macbeth'. We're doing it in English. Our class is going to the theatre to see
it next week. Mr Adams is taking us.
Andrew: What's it about?


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Andrew: What's it about?
Sadie: Well Macbeth murders the King of Scotland. But it doesn't do him any
good.
Andrew: Mr Davis takes us for English. We aren't doing Shakespeare though.
Sadie: Mr Adams loves Shakespeare. He's always quoting bits at us. Shakespeare
is England's greatest writer, he says. 1 Form
Present continuous: Present simple:
present of be + active participle base form/s-form
I am reading
you/we/they are reading I/you/we/they read
he/she it is reading he/she/it reads
Negative


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he/she it is reading he/she/it reads
Negative
I am not reading
you/we/they are not reading I/you/we they do not read
he/she/it is not reading he/she/it does not read
Questions
am I reading?
are you/we/they reading? do I/you/we/they read?
is he/she it reading? does he/she/it read?
PAGE 83 64 Present continuous and present simple
In present simple questions and negatives we use do/does and the base form of
the verb.
NOT He does not reads and NOT Does he reads?
NOTE


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NOT He does not reads and NOT Does he reads?
NOTE
a There are some spelling rules for the participle.
Leaving out e: lose losing • 292(1)
Doubling of some consonants: stop stopping • 293
b There are some spelling rules for the s-form.
Adding es after a sibilant sound: push pushes • 290(1)
Y changing to ie: hurry hurries • 294
c For pronunciation of the s/es ending, • 290(3).
2 Use
a An action continuing for a period


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2 Use
a An action continuing for a period
We use the present continuous for a present action over a period of time, something
that we are in the middle of now. The action has started but it hasn't finished yet.
What are you reading? 'Macbeth'. ~ It's raining now, look.
Hurry up. Your friends are waiting for you. I'm just ironing this shirt.
Some typical time expressions with the present continuous are now, at the
moment, at present, just, already and still.


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moment, at present, just, already and still.
We need not be doing the action at the moment of speaking.
I'm reading an interesting book. I can't remember what it's called.
We'd better get home. We're decorating the living-room at the moment.
b A state
We normally use the present simple for a present state: a feeling, opinion or
relation.
Mr Adams loves Shakespeare. I think it's a good idea.
Who knows the answer? This book belongs to my sister.


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Silicon is a chemical element. York lies on the River Ouse.
NOTE
We use the present simple for permanent states. With temporary states, states which go on
only for a short time, we can sometimes use the present continuous. For details, • 62.
The weather looks/is looking better today. 9 VERB TENSES AND ASPECTS PAGE 84
c Repeated actions
We use the present simple for repeated actions such as routines and habits, things


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that happen again and again. We see the series of actions as permanent, without end.
Bob works in Avonmouth. He usually drives to work.
We do lots of things in our spare time.
I don't often see Sarah.
The old man takes the dog for a walk every morning.
Typical time expressions with the present simple are always, often, usually,
sometimes, ever/never; every day/week etc; once/twice a week etc; on Friday(s) etc; in
the morning(s)/evening(s), at ten o'clock etc.


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the morning(s)/evening(s), at ten o'clock etc.
We also use the present simple for permanent facts, things that always happen.
Food gives you energy. Paint dries quicker in summer.
But we use the present continuous when a series of actions is temporary, only for a
period of time.
My car's off the road. I'm travelling to work by bus this week.
We're doing 'Macbeth' in English.
Bob's working in Avonmouth at the moment. But they may be moving him to
head office in Birmingham.
NOTE


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head office in Birmingham.
NOTE
a We use the present simple to talk about a permanent routine, whether or not the action is
happening at the moment.
You 're walking today. ~ Yes, I quite often walk to work.
You're walking today. You usually drive, don't you?
b We use the present continuous to say that we are regularly in the middle of something.
At seven we're usually having supper. (= At seven we're in the middle of supper.)
Compare the present simple for a complete action.


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Compare the present simple for a complete action.
At seven we usually have supper. (= Seven is our usual time for supper.)
We can talk about two actions.
Whenever I see Graham, he's wearing a tracksuit.
I like to listen to music when I'm driving.
c We can also use the present simple to say what is the right way to do something.
You turn left at the church. You put your money in here.
d The present continuous with always
There is a special use of always with the continuous.


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They're always giving parties, those people next door.
I'm always losing things. I can never find anything.
Mr Adams is always quoting bits of Shakespeare.
In this pattern always means 'very often' or 'too often'.
Compare these sentences.
Our teacher always gives us a test. (= every lesson)
Our teacher is always giving us tests. (= very often)
e An instant action
The present simple is also used to describe actions as they happen, for example in
a commentary.


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a commentary.
Hacker passes the ball to Short. Short moves inside, but Burley wins it back for
United.
The speaker sees these actions as instant, happening in a moment. For actions
over a period, we use the continuous.
United are playing really well now. The crowd are cheering them on. PAGE 85 65 Present perfect and past simple
We can also use the present (instead of the past) to tell a story. It makes the action
seem more direct, as if happening now.


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seem more direct, as if happening now.
I'm standing outside the bank, and a man conies up to me and grabs hold of
my arm.
We also use the present for actions in films, plays and books.
Macbeth murders the King of Scotland, who is staying at his castle.
NOTE
a We can also use the present simple with a performative verb, e.g. promise. • 16(3)
I promise I won't forget. I suggest we go. Yes, I agree.
b For the present simple after here/there, • 49(3b).


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c The present simple is used in headlines for a recent action: Rail fares go up.
In normal style we use the present perfect: Rail fares have gone up.
f Verbs of reporting
We can report the written word with a present simple verb. We see the written
statement as existing in the present.
It says/ said in the paper that there's going to be a strike.
The notice warns passengers to take care.
The letter explains everything.
We can also do this with reports of spoken words that we have heard


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recently. • 268(1a)
Shakespeare is England's greatest writer, Mr Adams says I said.
g The future
We can use the present continuous to talk about what someone has arranged to do
and the present simple for actions and events which are part of a timetable. • 73
Sadie is coming to stay with us next week.
The ferry gets into Rotterdam at six o'clock tomorrow morning.
We also use the present simple in some sub clauses of future time. • 77
If you need any help tomorrow, let me know.


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If you need any help tomorrow, let me know.
65 Present perfect and past simple
THE SKI SHOP
Debbie: Have you seen the ski shop that's just opened in the High Street?
Nicola: Yes, it opened last week, didn't it? I haven't been in there yet.
Debbie: I went in yesterday. It's really good. I bought some gloves. We're going to
Italy next winter, and I can buy clothes there.
Nicola: I haven't skied for ages actually. I've got some skis - I've had them for


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years. I used to ski a lot when I was younger.
Debbie: Where did you go?
Nicola: We went to Austria a few times.
Debbie: I've been to Scotland twice, but I've never done any skiing abroad. I'm
really looking forward to Italy. 9 VERB TENSES AND ASPECTS PAGE 86
1 Form
Present perfect: Past simple:
present of have + past participle past form
I/you/we/they have opened someone opened
he/she/it has opened
Negative
I/you/we/they have not opened someone did not open
he/she/it has not opened
Questions


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he/she/it has not opened
Questions
have I/you/we/they opened? did someone open?
has he/she/it opened?
Some participles and past forms are irregular, e.g. seen, bought. • 300
The perfect auxiliary is always have.
NOT They arc opened the shop and NOT I am hurt myself.
In past simple questions and negatives we use did and the base form of the verb.
NOT It did not opened and NOT Did it opened?
NOTE
a There are some spelling rules for the ed-form.
Adding d after e: dose closed • 291 (1)


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Adding d after e: dose closed • 291 (1)
Doubling of some consonants: stop stopped • 293
Y changing to i: hurry hurried • 294
b For pronunciation of the ed ending, •291(2).
2 Use of the present perfect
The present perfect tells us about the past and about the present. We use it for an
action in the period leading up to the present.
The shop has just opened. The visitors have arrived.
The post hasn't come yet. Have you ever ridden a horse?


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The visitors have arrived means that the visitors are here now.
We can also use the present perfect for repeated actions.
Debbie has been to Scotland twice. I've ridden lots of times.
We've often talked about emigrating.
We can also use the present perfect for states.
I've had these skis for years. The shop has been open a week.
I've always known about you and Diana.
Some typical time expressions with the present perfect are just, recently, lately,


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already, before, so far, still, ever/never, today, this morning/evening, for weeks/years,
since 1988. Some of these are also used with the past simple. • (5)
NOTE For been to and gone to, • 84(6). 65 Present perfect and past simple
3 Use of the past simple
a We use the past simple for an action in the past.
The shop opened last week. I bought some gloves yesterday.
The earthquake happened in 1905. I slept badly.
When did the first Winter Olympics take place?


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When did the first Winter Olympics take place?
The time of the action (last week) is over.
The past is the normal tense in stories.
Once upon a time a Princess went into a wood and sat down by a stream.
Some typical time expressions with the past simple are yesterday, this morning/
evening, last week/year, a week/month ago, that day/afternoon, the other day/week,
at eleven o'clock, on Tuesday, in 1990, just, recently, once, earlier, then, next, after


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that. Some of these are also used with the present perfect. • (5)
NOTE
a With the past simple we often say when the action happened.
/ bought some gloves yesterday.
I went in the shop yesterday. It's really good. I bought some gloves.
It is clear from the context that the action bought happened yesterday.
Sometimes there is no phrase of time, but we understand a definite time in the past.
I didn't eat any breakfast. My sister took this photo.


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b A phrase with ago means a finished time. It does not include the present, even though we
measure it from the present. Compare these sentences.
I saw that film on Wednesday/two days ago.
I've seen that film.
b We can also use the past simple for repeated actions.
We went to Austria a few times. The children always played in the garden.
We can also use the past simple for states.
I was younger then. The Romans had a huge Empire.
We stayed on the Riviera for several weeks.
NOTE


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We stayed on the Riviera for several weeks.
NOTE
a There are other ways of expressing repeated actions in the past. • 100
We used to go to Austria. The children would always play in the garden.
b For the past tense in a tentative request, e.g. / wanted to ask you something, •61(1) Note.
For the past tense expressing something unreal, e.g. I wish I had more money, • 241(3).
For the past tense expressing a possible future action, e.g. If I told you, you'd laugh, • 257(4c).


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4 Present perfect or past simple?
a The choice depends on whether the speaker sees the action as related to the
present or as in the past.
The shop has just opened.
The shop opened last week.
The two sentences can refer to the same action. The present perfect tells us
something about the present: the shop is open now. But the past simple means a
finished time (last week). It does not tell us about the present.
Present: The shop has just opened. (So it's open now.)


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Past: The shop opened last week. It's doing very well.
The shop opened last week. Then it closed again two days later.
Present: The car has broken down. (So I have no transport now.)
Past: The car broke down. It's still off the road.
The car broke down. But luckily we got it going again.
PAGE 87 9 VERB TENSES AND ASPECTS PAGE 88
b When we use the present perfect for a state, it means that the state still exists now.
If the state is over, we use the past.
I've had these skis for years.


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I've had these skis for years.
I had those skis for years. (Then I sold them.)
I've been here since three o'clock.
I was therefrom three o'clock to about five. (Then I left.)
Compare the past simple for an action.
I bought these skis years ago. I arrived here at three o'clock.
c When we use the present perfect for repeated actions, it means that the action may
happen again. The past simple means that the series of actions is over.


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Gayle has acted in more than fifty films. (Her career has continued up to now.)
Gayle acted in more than fifty films. (She is dead, or her career is over.)
d Look at this news report.
There has been a serious accident on the M6. It happened at ten o'clock this
morning near Preston when a lorry went out of control and collided with a car...
The present perfect is used to give the fact of the accident and the past simple for


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details such as when and how it happened. We often use the present perfect to first
mention a topic and the past simple for the details.
I've just been on a skiing holiday. ~ Oh, where did you go?
Have you sent in your application? ~ Yes, I sent it in ages ago.
5 Adverbials of time with the present perfect and past
simple
Some adverbials used with both forms are just, recently, already, once/twice etc,
ever/never, today, this morning/week etc and phrases with for and since. For


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American usage, • 303(6).
a With just and recently there is little difference in meaning.
I've just heard the news./I just heard the news.
We've recently moved house./We recently moved house.
Compare these examples with already.
I've already heard the news. (before now)
I already knew before you told me. (before then)
b Once, twice etc with the present perfect means the number of times the action has
happened up to now.
We've been to Scotland once/lots of times.


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We've been to Scotland once/lots of times.
This is the third time my car has broken down this month.
With the simple past once usually means 'at a time in the past'.
We went to Scotland once.
Ever/never with the present perfect means 'in all the time up to now'. With the
simple past it refers to a finished period.
Have you ever visited our showroom?
Didyou ever visit our old showroom?
c We can use this morning, this afternoon and today with the present perfect when


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they include the present time. When the time is over, we use the past.
It has been windy this morning. (The morning is not yet over.)
It was windy this morning. (It is afternoon or evening.) NOTE
a We can use a pattern with it to emphasize the time.
It's years since I skied/I've skied. It was in 1988 (that) I last skied.
b I've been here (for) a month means that I arrived here a month ago. I am here for a month
means that I have arranged to stay here for a month in total.
66 Past continuous


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66 Past continuous
AN UNIDENTIFIED FLYING OBJECT
'I was going home from the pub at quarter to eleven. There was a full moon. I was
walking over the bridge when I saw the UFO. It was quite low. It was long and
thin, shaped like a cigar. It appeared to be made of aluminium. It was travelling
east to west, towards Warminster. I didn't know what to do. I didn't have a
camera of course. I watched it for a minute and then it went behind a cloud.'
1 Form
Past of be + active participle


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1 Form
Past of be + active participle
I/he/she/it was flying
you/we/they were flying
Negative Questions
I/he/she/it was not flying was I/he/she/it flying?
you/we/they were not flying were you/we/they flying?
PAGE 89 66 Past continuous
With today there is little difference in meaning.
It has been windy today. (The day is not yet over.)
It was windy today. (The day is over.)
Both sentences are spoken late in the day. The second must be in the evening. The
speaker sees the day as over.


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speaker sees the day as over.
We use the present perfect with this week/month/year when we mean the whole
period up to now.
I've seen a lot of television this week.
We use the simple past for one time during the period.
I saw an interesting programme this week.
We might say this on Friday about something two or three days earlier.
We often use the negative with phrases of unfinished time.
It hasn't been very warm today.
I haven't seen much television this week.


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I haven't seen much television this week.
d We often use for and since with the negative present perfect.
I haven't skied for years. /I haven't skied since 1988.
We can also use since with a clause.
I haven't skied since I was twelve.
Compare the past simple.
I last skied years ago/in 1988/ when I was twelve.
We can also use a phrase with for with the past simple to say how long something
went on.
I skied for hours. 9 VERB TENSES AND ASPECTS
2 Use
a An action over a past period


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2 Use
a An action over a past period
We use the past continuous for an action over a period of past time, something
that we were in the middle of.
At quarter to eleven I was walking home.
The UFO was travelling east to west.
I wasn't sleeping, so I got up.
I looked into the room. All the old people were watching television.
Compare the present continuous and past continuous.
The UFO is travelling west. (It is in the middle of its journey.)


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The UFO was travelling west. (It was in the middle of its journey.)
But for a complete action in the past, we use the past simple.
The UFO went behind a cloud.
In these examples the past continuous means an action over a whole period.
The salesman was travelling from Monday to Friday.
We were watching for UFOs all night. We never went to sleep.
Here we could also use the past simple.
Period of time: He was travelling all week. He was very tired.


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Complete action: He travelled all week. He drove a long way.
b Past continuous and past simple
The period of a past continuous action can include a clock time.
/ was walking home at quarter to eleven.
It can also include another action.
/ was walking home when I saw the UFO.
Here the speaker sees one action as happening around another. The past
continuous is the longer, background action (walking), and the past simple is the


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shorter, complete action (saw). The shorter action interrupted the longer one.
Here are some more examples.
Tim was washing his hair when the doorbell rang.
I had a sudden idea when/while/as I was waiting in a traffic queue.
The sun was shining when the campers woke.
When two actions both went on during the same period of time, we use the past
continuous for both.
Tim was washing his hair while I was cleaning up the kitchen.


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When one complete action followed another, we use the past simple for both.
Tim got up when the doorbell rang. (= The doorbell rang and then Tim got up.)
c Past states
For a past state we normally use the past simple.
My grandmother loved this house.
I didn't know what to do.
The UFO appeared to be made of aluminium. It had a shape like a cigar.
NOTE
With temporary states we can sometimes use the past continuous. For details, • 62.
I didn't feel/wasn't feeling very well.


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I didn't feel/wasn't feeling very well.
PAGE 90 PAGE 91 67 Present perfect continuous
Other uses of the past continuous
a We can use the past continuous for repeated actions which are temporary, only for a period.
My car was off the road. I was travelling to work by bus that week.
Compare I'm travelling to work by bus this week. • 64(2c)
b We can use the past continuous for a past arrangement.
/ was on my way to the pub. I was meeting James there.
(= I had arranged to meet James there.)


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(= I had arranged to meet James there.)
For I'm meeting James at the pub tonight, • 73(1).
c With the continuous, always means 'very often' or 'too often'.
Do you remember Mr Adams? He was always quoting Shakespeare.
For examples with the present continuous, • 64(2d).
67 Present perfect continuous
GOING INTO HOSPITAL
Mrs Webster: I shall have to go into hospital some time to have an operation on
my leg.
Ted: Are you on the waiting list?
Mrs Webster: Yes, I've been waiting for three years.


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Ted: Three years! That's awful! You've been suffering all that time.
Mrs Webster: Well, I have to use the wheelchair, that's all.
Ted: They've been cutting expenditure, trying to save money. It's not right.
Mrs Webster: My son David has written to them three times. He's been trying to get
me in quicker. I don't know if it'll do any good.
1 Form
Present of have + been + active participle
I/you/we/they have been waiting
he/she/it has been waiting
Negative Questions


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he/she/it has been waiting
Negative Questions
I/you/we/they have not been waiting have I/you/we/they been waiting?
he/she/it has not been waiting has he/she/it been waiting?
2 Use
a We use the present perfect continuous for an action over a period of time up to
now, the period leading up to the present.
I've been waiting for three years.
The government has been cutting expenditure.
How long have you been using a wheelchair?
The roof has been leaking. The carpet's wet.


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The roof has been leaking. The carpet's wet.
The speaker looks back from the present and so uses the perfect.
NOT I wait for three years.
We often use for and since. • 227(5)
We've been living here for six months/since April.
NOTE
The action can end just before the present.
You look hot. ~ Yes, I've been running. 9 VERB TENSES AND ASPECTS PAGE 92
b We can use the present perfect continuous for repeated actions up to now.
David has been writing letters to the hospital.


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David has been writing letters to the hospital.
I've been going to evening classes in Arabic.
The speaker sees the actions as a continuing series.
Compare the present perfect for a complete series of actions.
David has written to the hospital three times now.
c Compare the present perfect continuous and the present perfect for a single action.
Period of time: I've been washing the car. I'm rather wet.
Complete action: I've washed the car. It looks a lot cleaner now.


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The continuous here focuses on the action going on. The present perfect focuses
on the result of the action. The choice depends on how the speaker sees the action.
When we say how long, we normally use the continuous form. When we say how
many, we do not use the continuous.
Tina has been writing her report since two o'clock. She's written twelve pages.
Now look at these examples.
I've been waiting here for ages./I've waited here for ages.


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We've been living here since April/We've lived here since April.
The continuous is more usual here, but there is little difference in meaning.
d We use the present perfect (not the continuous) for a state up to the present.
She has been in a wheelchair for three years. I've always hated hospitals.
68 Past perfect and past perfect continuous
Miranda lay on her bed and stared at the ceiling. She was depressed. Her boy-
friend Max had gone on holiday with his brother the day before. He hadn't


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invited Miranda to go with him. He hadn't even said goodbye properly. And
everything had been going so well. What had she done wrong?
1 Form
Past perfect: Past perfect continuous:
had + past participle had been + active participle
someone had invited someone had been going
Negative
someone had not invited someone had not been going
Questions
had someone invited? had someone been going?
2 Use of the past perfect
We use the past perfect for an action before a past time.


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She had met Max six months before. I knew I had forgotten something.
By midnight they had come to an agreement.
We ran onto the platform, but the train had just gone.
The paragraph above begins in the past tense. The situation is that Miranda lay on
her bed. The writer looks back from the past situation to a time before. PAGE 93 68 Past perfect and past perfect continuous
Compare the present perfect and past perfect.
The floor is clean. I have washed it.
The floor was clean. I had washed it.


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The floor was clean. I had washed it.
We can also use the past perfect for a state.
They had been friends for six months.
Everything had seemed fine up to then.
The gunman had previously been in prison for three years.
NOTE For the past perfect in if-clauses, • 257(6).
3 Past simple and past perfect
a To talk about one action in the past we use the past simple.
This lamp is a new one. I bought it last week. NOT I had bought it last week.


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We also use the past simple when one action comes straight after another, when
someone reacts quickly.
When the shot rang out, everyone threw themselves to the floor.
To say that someone finished one action and then did something else, we use
either when... had done or after... did/had done.
When Miranda had written the letter, she went out to post it.
After Miranda wrote/had written the letter, she went out to post it.
NOT When Miranda wrote the letter, she went out to post it.
NOTE


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NOTE
For the past perfect with hardly and no sooner, • 250(5).
/ had hardly sat down when the phone rang.
b Sometimes the choice of past simple or past perfect can make a difference to the
meaning.
When the boss arrived, the meeting began.
(The boss arrived and then the meeting began.)
When the boss arrived, the meeting had begun.
(The meeting began before the boss arrived.)
When Max spoke, Miranda put the phone down.
(= When Max started speaking...)


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(= When Max started speaking...)
When Max had spoken, Miranda put the phone down.
(= When Max finished speaking...)
c We can sometimes use the past perfect after before or until.
The toaster went wrong before it toasted/had toasted one piece of bread.
We didn't want to stop until we finished/had finished the job.
4 Use of the past perfect continuous
We use the past perfect continuous for an action over a period up to a past time.
Everything had been going so well up to then.


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Everything had been going so well up to then.
The driver who died in the accident had been drinking.
A woman collapsed at the supermarket checkout. She had been smuggling out a
frozen chicken under her hat.
Compare the present and past tense.
My hands are wet. I have been washing the floor.
My hands were wet. I had been washing the floor. 9 VERB TENSES AND ASPECTS
5 The past perfect continuous and other past forms
a Compare the past perfect continuous and past perfect.


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Period of time: I'd been mowing the lawn. I was tired.
Complete action: I'd mown the lawn. It looked nice.
The past perfect continuous (had been mowing) focuses on the action going on.
The past perfect (had mown) focuses on the result of the action.
When we say how long, we normally use the continuous form. When we say how
many, we do not use the continuous.
The volunteers brought in their collecting boxes at lunch time yesterday. They had


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been collecting money all morning. They had collected hundreds of pounds.
b Compare the past continuous and past perfect continuous.
When I saw Debbie, she was playing golf. (I saw her in the middle of the game.)
When I saw Debbie, she'd been playing golf. (I saw her after the game.)
69 Overview: uses of tenses and aspects
1 Present continuous • 64 Present simple • 64
In the middle of an action
I'm watching this comedy.
A temporary routine
I'm working late this week.
A present state


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I'm working late this week.
A present state
I like comedies.
A permanent routine
I work late most days.
2 Present perfect • 65 Past simple • 65
An action in the period up to the present
I've written the letter.
A series of actions up to the present
I've played basketball a few times.
A state up to the present
I've been here for a week.
An action in the past
I wrote the letter yesterday.
A series of past actions
I played basketball years ago.
A past state
/ was there for a week.


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A past state
/ was there for a week.
3 Past continuous • 66
An action over a period of past time
It was raining at the time.
4 Present perfect continuous • 67
An action over a period up to the present
It has been raining all day.
5 Past perfect continuous • 68 Past perfect • 68
An action over a period up to a past time
It had been raining for hours.
An action before a past time
The rain had stopped by then.
A state before a past time
The weather had been awful.
PAGE 94 PAGE 95
10The future


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PAGE 94 PAGE 95
10The future
70 Summary
This news item is about something in the future.
CINEMA TO CLOSE
The Maxime Cinema is to close in November, it was announced yesterday. The
owner of the building, Mr Charles Peters, has sold it to a firm of builders, who are
going to build a block of old people's flats on the site. 'The cinema has become
uneconomic to run,' said Mr Peters. The last performance is on Saturday 17th


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November, and after that the cinema will finally close its doors after sixty years in
business. 'This town won't be the same again,' said camera operator Bert Dudley,
who has worked at the cinema for eighteen years. Mr Dudley (67) is retiring when
the cinema closes. In future, cinema goers will have to travel ten miles to the
nearest cinema.
There are different ways of expressing the future.
Will and shall • 71
The cinema will close in November.
We shall close the doors for the last time.


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We shall close the doors for the last time.
Be going to • 72
The cinema is going to close soon.
Present tense forms • 73
The cinema is closing in November.
The cinema closes on November 17th.
Will, be going to or the present continuous? • 74
The choice of form depends on whether we are making a prediction about the
future, expressing an intention, or talking about a plan for the future, and so on.
The future continuous • 75
The cinema is sold and will be closing in November.
Be to • 76


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Be to • 76
The cinema is to close in November, it was announced.
The present simple in a sub clause • 77
It will be a sad day when the cinema closes. 10 THE FUTURE
Other ways of expressing the future • 78
Mr Dudley is about to retire.
He might retire soon.
He plans to retire in November.
The future perfect • 79
The cinema will have been in business for sixty years.
Looking forward from the past • 80
Mr Dudley was going to continue working, but he lost his job.
OVERVIEW: the future • 81


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OVERVIEW: the future • 81
71 Will and shall
1 We use will + base form for the future.
This book will change your life. We'll know our exam results in August.
Cinema goers will have to travel ten miles to the nearest cinema.
Will you still love me tomorrow? This town won't be the same again.
Will has a short form 'II, and will not has a short form won't.
2 In the first person we can use either will or shall in statements about the future.
The meaning is the same.


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The meaning is the same.
I will be/shall be at home tomorrow.
We will have/shall have another opportunity soon.
Shall is less usual in the USA.
We do not normally use shall with other subjects.
NOT Christine shall be at home tomorrow.
NOTE
Shall not has a short form shan't / a:nt /.
I shan't be here tomorrow.
3 Will often expresses the future as fact, something we cannot control. It expresses a
prediction, a definite opinion about the future.
Southern England will stay cloudy and windy tonight.


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My father will probably be in hospital for at least two weeks.
4 We can sometimes use I'll/we'll for an instant decision.
It's raining. I'll take an umbrella. I think I'll have the soup, please.
We decide more or less as the words are spoken. Compare be going to.
I'll buy some postcards. (I'm deciding now.)
I'm going to buy some postcards. (I've already decided.)
NOTE
Will expresses a definite action in the future, not just a wish.


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Action: There's a shop here. I'll buy some postcards. ~ OK, I'll wait for you.
Wish: I want to buy some postcards, but I haven't got any money.
5 Will sometimes expresses willingness.
Jim will translate it for you. He speaks Italian.
I'll sit / I'm willing to sit on the floor. I don't mind. PAGE 97 72 Be going to
Won't can express unwillingness or an emphatic refusal.
The doctor won't come at this time of night.
I won't put up with this nonsense.
NOTE


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I won't put up with this nonsense.
NOTE
We can also use won't when the subject is not a person.
The car won't start. This screw won't go in properly.
6 We can use I'll/we'll and will/won't you in offers, promises, etc.
Offer: I'll hold the door open for you. ~ Oh, thanks.
Promise: (I promise) I'll do my best to help you.
Invitation: Won't you sit down?
Request: Will you do something for me?
7 When we can't decide, we use shall I/we to ask for advice or suggestions.


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Where shall I put these flowers? ~ I'll get a vase.
What shall we do this weekend?
We can also use shall I/we for an offer.
Shall I hold the door open for you? ~ Oh, thanks.
8 We can use you shall for a promise.
You shall be the first to know. (I promise).
9 Will is sometimes used in formal orders. It expresses the order as a definite future
action. This emphasizes the authority of the speaker.
You will leave the building immediately. Uniform will be worn.


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Shall is sometimes used for formal rules.
The secretary shall give two weeks' notice of such a meeting.
72 Be going to
We use be going to + base form for a present situation which points to the future.
It's ten already. We're going to be late. This fence is going to fall down soon.
We can see from the time that we are going to be late, and we can see from the
condition of the fence that it is going to fall down. Be going to expresses a
prediction based on these situations.


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prediction based on these situations.
NOTE In informal speech going to is sometimes pronounced / 'g n /.
We can also use be going to for a present intention.
I'm going to start my own business. I'm not going to live here all my life.
They're going to build some old people's flats here.
Here the intention points to a future action. I'm going to start means that I intend
to start/I have decided to start.
For a comparison of be going to and will, • 74.
NOTE


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NOTE
a We can use be going to without mentioning the person who has the intention.
The flats are going to be for old people.
b With verbs of movement, especially go and come, we often use the present continuous
rather than be going to.
I'm going out in a minute. I've got some shopping to do.
Barbara is coming round for a chat tonight.
I'm going to go out and Barbara is going to come round are possible but less usual. 10 THE FUTURE PAGE 98
73 Present tense forms for the future


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73 Present tense forms for the future
1 We use the present continuous for what someone has arranged to do.
I'm meeting Gavin at the club tonight. What are you doing tomorrow?
Julie is going to Florida.
This suggests that Julie has made arrangements such as buying her ticket.
The meaning is similar to be going to for an intention, and in many contexts we can
use either form.
We're visiting/ We're going to visit friends at the weekend.
NOTE
a An 'arrangement' need not be with another person.


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I'm doing some shopping this afternoon. I'm having an early night.
This means that I have arranged my day so that I can do these things,
b We cannot use a state verb in the continuous.
Gavin will be at the club tonight.
NOT Gavin is being at the club tonight.
2 We can sometimes use the present simple for the future, but only for what we see
as part of a timetable.
The Cup Final is on May 7th. The train leaves at 16.40.
We change at Birmingham. What time do you arrive in Helsinki?


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We do not use the present simple for decisions or intentions.
NOT I carry that bag for you.
NOT They build some flats here soon.
NOTE For the present simple in sub clauses, • 77.
74 Will, be going to or the present continuous?
1 Both will and be going to can express predictions.
It'll rain, I expect. It always rains at weekends.
It's going to rain. Look at those clouds.
A prediction with be going to is based on the present situation.


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Sometimes we can use either form with little difference in meaning.
One day the sun will cool down.
One day the sun is going to cool down.
The sentence with be going to suggests that there is some present evidence for the
prediction.
We often use will with I'm sure, I think, I expect and probably.
I think we'll have time for a coffee.
There'll probably be lots of people at the disco.
We use be going to (not will) when the future action is very close.


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Help! I'm going to fall! I'm going to be sick!
NOTE
Compare the meanings of these verb forms.
The cinema closed last year. The cinema has closed.
(in the past) (past action related to the present)
The cinema will close in November. The cinema is going to close soon.
(in the future) (future action related to the present) 75 The future continuous: will be doing
2 When we talk about intentions, plans and arrangements, we use be going to or the
present continuous, but not will.


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present continuous, but not will.
We're going to eat out tonight. (We have decided to eat out.)
We're eating out tonight. (We have arranged to eat out.)
We use will only for an instant decision.
It's hot in here. I'll open a window.
Paul is using the kitchen. He's cooking for some friends. ~ Well, we'll eat out then.
3 Look at this conversation at the end of work on Friday afternoon.
A FEW DAYS OFF
Emma: I'll see you on Monday then.


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A FEW DAYS OFF
Emma: I'll see you on Monday then.
Polly: Oh, I won't be here. Didn't I tell you? I'm taking a few days off. I'm going
on holiday. I'll be away for a week.
Emma: No, you didn't say. Where are you going?
Polly: The Lake District. I'm going to do some walking.
Emma: Oh, that'll be nice. Well, I hope you have a good time.
Polly: Thanks. I'll see you the week after.
Polly gives the news of her plans and intentions by using the present continuous
and be going to.


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and be going to.
I'm taking a few days off. I'm going to do some walking.
We cannot use will in this context. But after first mentioning a plan or intention,
we often use will for further details and comments.
I'm going on holiday. I'll be away for a week.
I'm going to do some walking. ~ Oh, that'll be nice.
They're going to build some flats. The work will take about six months.
NOTE
We often use will in a sentence with an if-clause. • 257(3)
I'll lose my way if I don't take a map.


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I'll lose my way if I don't take a map.
Sometimes a condition is understood but not expressed.
I might give up the course. ~ You'll regret it (if you do).
75 The future continuous: will be doing
1 We use will + be + active participle for an action over a period of future time. It
means that we will be in the middle of an action.
I can't meet you at four. I'll be working.
How will I recognize you? ~ I'm fair, six feet tall, and I'll be wearing a blue coat.


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A huge crowd will be waiting when the Queen arrives later today.
Compare the past and future.
I've just had a holiday. This time last week I was lying in the sun.
I'm going on holiday. This time next week I'll be lying in the sun.
Compare these sentences.
The crowd will cheer when the Queen arrives.
(She will arrive and then the crowd will cheer.)
The crowd will be cheering when the Queen arrives.
(The crowd will start cheering before she arrives.)
NOTE


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NOTE
In the first person we can also use shall.
I will/shall be revising all day for the exam.
PAGE 99 10 THE FUTURE PAGE 100
2 We can also use will be doing for an action which is the result of a routine or
arrangement.
I'll be phoning my mother tonight. I always phone her on Fridays.
The Queen will be arriving in ten minutes' time.
The postman will be coming soon.
The site is to be sold, and so the cinema will be closing in November.


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The phone call is the result of my regular routine. The Queen's arrival is part of her
schedule. The postman's visit is part of his normal working day.
Compare these sentences.
Decision: I think I'll have lunch in the canteen today.
Arrangement: I'm having lunch with Alex.
Routine: I'll be having lunch in the canteen as usual.
We can use will be doing to ask if someone's plans fit in with our wishes.
Will you be going past the post office this morning? ~ Yes, why? ~ Could you post


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this for me please?
How long will you be using the tennis court? ~ We've booked it until three. You
can have it after that.
When will you be marking our test papers? ~ Next week, probably.
76 Be to
1 We use be to + base form for an official arrangement.
The Prime Minister is to visit Budapest.
The two leaders are to meet for talks on a number of issues.
This pattern is often used in news reports.
NOTE
Be is often left out in headlines.
Prime Minister to visit Budapest.


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Prime Minister to visit Budapest.
2 Be to can also express an order by a person in authority, e.g. a teacher or parent.
The headmaster says you are to come at once.
You're not to stay up late. No one is to leave this building.
This trolley is not to be removed from the station.
77 The present simple in a sub clause
1 We often use the present simple for future time in a clause with if, when, as, while,
before, after, until, by the time and as soon as. This happens when both clauses are


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about the future.
If we meet at seven, we'll have plenty of time.
Mr Dudley is going to move to the seaside when he retires.
Let's wait until the rain stops.
By the time you get this letter, I'll be in Singapore.
Call me as soon as you have any news.
NOT Gall me as soon as you'll have any news.
The same thing happens in relative clauses and noun clauses.
There will be a prize for the person who scores the most points.


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I'll see that the place is left tidy. PAGE 101 78 Other ways of expressing the future
2 We also use the present continuous and present perfect instead of the forms
with will.
I'll think of you here when I'm lying on the beach next week.
Let's wait until the rain has stopped. NOT until the rain will have stopped.
3 If the main clause has a present-simple verb (e.g. I expect), then we cannot use
another present-simple verb for the future.
I expect the rain will stop soon.


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I expect the rain will stop soon.
I keep reminding myself that I'll be lying on the beach next week.
NOTE
After hope we can use either a present or a future form.
I hope you have/you'll have a nice time.
78 Other ways of expressing the future
1 Be about to etc
a We can use be about to + base form for an action in the near future.
The audience are in their seats, and the performance is about to start.
Hurry up. The coach is about to leave.
NOTE


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Hurry up. The coach is about to leave.
NOTE
We can use be just about to/going to for the very near future.
The coach is just about to leave/just going to leave.
b We can also use be on the point of+ gerund.
The company is on the point of signing the contract.
NOTE
Be set to + base form is used in news reports about things likely to happen in the near future.
The company is set to sign the contract.
c We can use be due to + base form for an action which is part of a timetable.


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The visitors are due to arrive at two.
2 Modal verbs
Besides will, there are other modal verbs which express the future. We use them to
say that something is possible or necessary in the future.
I can meet you later. (= I will be able to ...)
There might be a storm. (= There will possibly...)
We must post the invitations soon. (= We will have to ...)
NOTE
We can use be sure to/be bound to + base form to express certainty about the future.
The scheme is sure to fail. (= It will certainly fail.)


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There is bound to be trouble. (= There will certainly be trouble.)
3 Ordinary verbs
There are some ordinary verbs that we can use with a to-infinitive to express
intentions and plans for the future.
We've decided to sell our flat. We intend to move soon,
Helen plans to re-train as a nurse. We've arranged to visit the area. 10 THE FUTURE PAGE 102
79 The future perfect: will have done
We can use will + have+ past participle to look back from the future, to talk about


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something that will be over at a future time.
I'll have finished this book soon. I'm nearly at the end.
We don't want to spend all day in the museum. I should think we'll have seen
enough by lunch-time.
Sarah won't have completed her studies until she's twenty-five.
Our neighbours are moving soon. They'll have only been here a year.
NOTE
a In the first person we can also use shall.
We will/shall have done half the journey by the time we stop for lunch.
b For until and by, • 227(6).


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b For until and by, • 227(6).
c We can use will with the perfect and the continuous together.
I'll have been reading this book for about six weeks.
Our neighbours are moving soon. They'll have only been living here a year.
80 Looking forward from the past:
was going to etc
1 We can use was/were going to for a past intention or arrangement.
Mr Dudley was going to retire, but then he found another job.
We were going to watch the film, but then we forgot about it.


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The bus pulled away just as I was going to get on it.
I was going to means that I intended to.
NOTE
a Sometimes the intended action (Mr Dudley's retirement) actually happens.
He had to retire when the cinema closed. But he was going to retire anyway.
b We can also use the past continuous for a past arrangement.
Joanne went to bed early because she was getting up at five.
2 We can use would as a past form of will.
They set off at daybreak. They would reach the camp before nightfall.


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George Washington was the first President of a nation that would become the
richest and most powerful on earth.
Here we look at a past action (reaching the camp) from a time when it was in the
future.
We can use would not for past unwillingness, a refusal.
The spokesman wouldn't answer any questions.
The car wouldn't start this morning.
3 We can also use be to, be about to etc in the past.
It was the last film at the cinema, which was to close the next day.


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We had to hurry. The coach was about to leave.
Phil was on the point of leaving when he noticed an attractive girl looking across
the room at him.
NOTE
a The cinema was to close means that there was an arrangement for the cinema to close. But
was to + perfect means that what was arranged did not actually happen.
The cinema was to have closed the next day, but they decided to keep it open another week. PAGE 103 81 Overview: the future


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b There is a special use of was to where it has a similar meaning to would.
George Washington was the first President of a nation that was to become the richest and
most powerful on earth.
Here was to means that the future action really did happen.
81 Overview: the future
1 Will • 71 Be going to • 72
A prediction
Scotland will win the game.
An instant decision
I think I'll buy a ticket.
An offer
I'll help you.
A prediction based on the present
Scotland are going to win the game.
An intention


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Scotland are going to win the game.
An intention
I'm going to buy a ticket, I've decided.
2 Present simple • 73 Present continuous • 73
A timetable
The game starts at 3.00 pm.
In a sub clause • 77
We must get there before the game starts.
An arrangement
I'm playing in the team tomorrow.
3 Future continuous • 75
An action over a future period
I'll be working all day Saturday.
The result of a routine or arrangement
I've got a job in a shop. I'll
be working on Saturday.


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be working on Saturday.
4 Be to • 76 Be about to • 78
An official arrangement The near future
The conference is to take The players are on the field. The
place in November. game is about to start.
5 Future perfect • 79
Something that will be over in the future
The game will have finished
by half past four.
6 Would • 80 Was going to • 80
Looking forward from the past
At half time we thought
Scotland would win.
Looking forward from the past
At half time we thought
Scotland were going to win.


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Scotland were going to win.
Past intention or arrangement
I was going to watch the match,
but I was ill. 11Be, have and do
82 Summary
Auxiliary verbs and ordinary verbs • 83
Be, have and do can be auxiliary verbs or ordinary verbs.
Auxiliary verbs Ordinary verbs
We were waiting for a bus. We were at the bus stop.
I have thought about it. I have a suggestion.
Does Tina need any help? Tina does all the work.
The ordinary verb be • 84
The ordinary verb be has a number of different uses.


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The shop is on the corner. The twins are eighteen.
Have (got) • 85
Have (got) expresses possession and related meanings.
Richard has (got) a motor-bike. We've got a problem.
The ordinary verb have • 86
The ordinary verb have can be an action verb with meanings such as 'experience'
or 'receive'.
I'm having a holiday. We had a sudden shock.
Empty verbs • 87
Sometimes we can express an action as an empty verb + object, e.g. have a ride,
take a look.
The ordinary verb do • 88


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take a look.
The ordinary verb do • 88
We can use do as an ordinary verb to talk about actions.
What on earth have you done? I'm doing a few odd jobs.
Do and make • 89
Do and make have similar meanings and some idiomatic uses.
PAGE 104 PAGE 105 84 The ordinary verb be
83 Auxiliary verbs and ordinary verbs
1 In these statements, be and have are auxiliary verbs.
Continuous: I'm taking my library books back.
Passive: Books are lent for a period of three weeks.
Perfect: I've finished this book.


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Perfect: I've finished this book.
In a statement we do not normally use the auxiliary do. Verbs in the present simple
or past simple have no auxiliary.
Simple: I like murder stories.
2 In negatives, questions and some other patterns, we always use an auxiliary. In
simple tenses we use the auxiliary do.
be/have do
Negative I'm not going to I don't go to the library
the post office. very often.
Question and Have you finished Do you use the library? ~


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short answer this book? ~ Yes, I have. Yes, I do.
Tag You're reading You like murder stories,
this book, aren't you? don't you?
Addition I've read this book. I enjoyed that book.
~ So have I. ~ So did I.
Emphasis I am enjoying this book. I do like murder stories.
• 51(2)
3 Be, have and do can also be ordinary verbs.
It was a lovely day. We had some sandwiches. (= ate)
I did the crossword this morning. (= completed)
The ordinary verbs can be perfect or continuous.


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The ordinary verbs can be perfect or continuous.
It has been a lovely day. We were having some sandwiches. (= were eating)
I've done the crossword. (= have completed)
NOTE
a There can be the same auxiliary and ordinary verb together.
I was being lazy. (continuous of be) I've had a sandwich. (perfect of have)
I did do the crossword yesterday. (emphatic form of do)
b The ordinary verb do can be passive.
The crossword was done in ten minutes.
84 The ordinary verb be
1 Be as a linking verb


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84 The ordinary verb be
1 Be as a linking verb
The ordinary verb be functions as a linking verb. • 9
The world is a wonderful place. The prisoners were hungry.
Are you being serious? The boss has been out of the office.
For there + be, • 50. 11 BE, HAVE AND DO PAGE 106
2 Form
Present simple Present continuous
I am I am being
you/we/they are you/we/they are being
he/she/it is he/she/it is being
Past simple Past continuous
I/he/she/it was I/he/she/it was being


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I/he/she/it was I/he/she/it was being
you/we/they were you/we/they were being
Present perfect
I/you/we/they have been
he/she/it has been
Past perfect
everyone had been
In simple tenses we add n't/not for the negative, and there is inversion of be and
the subject in questions.
This pen isn't very good. NOT This pen doesn't be very good.
Were your friends there? NOT Did your friends be there?
3 Be with the continuous
We can use be with the continuous for behaviour over a period of time.


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The neighbours are being noisy today. The children were being silly.
Compare these two sentences.
You're being stupid. (behaviour for a time)
You're stupid. (permanent quality)
NOTE
We can use be in the imperative for behaviour.
Be quiet. Don't be silly. Do be careful.
4 Be, lie and stand
We often use be to say where something is.
York is/lies on the River Ouse. The building was/stood at a busy crossroads.
Here lie and stand are more formal and literary than be.
5 Other uses of be


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5 Other uses of be
We can also use be in these contexts.
Events: The match was last Saturday.
Identity: Mr Crosby, this is my father.
Age: I'll be eighteen in November.
Nationality: We're Swedish. We're from/We come from Stockholm.
Jobs: My sister is a lawyer. 85 Have (got)
Possession: Are these bags yours?
Cost: How much are these plates/do these plates cost?
Number: Seven plus three is ten.
Qualities: The buildings are ugly.
Feelings: Hello. How are you?'~ I'm fine, thanks.


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Feelings: Hello. How are you?'~ I'm fine, thanks.
I'm cold. Can we put the fire on?
If we're all hungry, we'd better eat.
Right/wrong: Yes, that's right. I think you're mistaken.
Early/late: We were late for the show.
NOTE
a For You are to report to the manager, • 76.
b We do not use be before belong, depend and agree.
This bike belongs to me. NOT This bike is belong to me.
Well, that depends. NOT Well, that's-depend.
I agree absolutely. NOT I'm agree absolutely.
6 Gone or been?


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6 Gone or been?
We often use been instead of gone. Compare these two sentences.
Tom has gone to town. (He won't be back for a while.)
Tom has been to town. (He's just got back.)
Gone means 'gone and still away'. Been means 'gone and come back'.
In questions about what places people have visited, we use been.
Have you (ever) been to Amsterdam?
NOTE
a We also make this difference before an active participle.
The girls have gone swimming. (They're at the pool.)


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The girls have been swimming. (They're back now.)
b For American usage, • 303 (7).
85 Have (got)
1 Use
The main use of have (got) is to express possession.
I have a car phone./I've got a car phone.
Mike has a small flat./Mike has got a small flat.
As well as possession, have (got) expresses other related meanings.
Kate has (got) blue eyes. I 've (got) an idea.
The protesters had (got) plenty of courage.
Have you (got) any brothers or sisters?
I had (got) a number of phone calls to make.


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I had (got) a number of phone calls to make.
I've (got) a terrible headache. I haven't (got) time to wait.
a Have (got) can express permanent or temporary possession.
Louise has (got) a new radio. She bought it yesterday.
Louise has (got) a book that belongs to me.
b We can use with for possession after a noun phrase.
We saw a man with a gun. (= a man who had a gun)
But with cannot replace a main verb.
The man had a gun. NOT The man was with a gun.
PAGE 107 11 BE, HAVE AND DO


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PAGE 107 11 BE, HAVE AND DO
c Have (got) ...on means 'wear'.
Mandy has (got) a long dress on. (= Mandy is wearing a long dress.)
d There is also a pattern with have (got) which means the same as there + be.
The T-shirt had a slogan on it. (= There was a slogan on the T-shirt.)
2 Form
a Have (got) expresses a state. We do not use it in the continuous.
Present simple
I/you/we/they have I/you/we/they have got
he/she/it has he/she/it has got
Past simple
everyone had everyone had got
Present perfect


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everyone had everyone had got
Present perfect
I/you/we/they have had
he/she/it has had
Past perfect
everyone had had
b Got is informal, typical of everyday conversation. We can use it in the present
simple and past simple, but it is more common in the present than in the past. And
it is more common in Britain than in the USA.
With have on its own, we usually use a full form. Before got, we can use the short
forms 've, 's or 'd.
Present simple


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forms 've, 's or 'd.
Present simple
I have the key. (a little formal) I have got the key. (informal)
I've the key. (unusual) I've got the key. (informal)
Past simple
I had the key. (most usual) I had got the key. (less usual)
I'd the key. (unusual) I'd got the key. (less usual)
NOTE
In very informal speech, got is sometimes used without have.
I got lots of time. (= I've got lots of time.)
You got any money? (= Have you got any money?)


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You got any money? (= Have you got any money?)
c There are some patterns where we do not normally use got. We do not use it in
the perfect.
I've had these shoes for years.
We do not normally use it in the infinitive or the ing-form.
It would be nice to have lots of money.
It's pretty depressing having no job.
We do not use got in a short answer.
Have you got your bag? ~ Yes, I have.
And we do not normally use got after a modal verb.
You can have these magazines if you like.


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You can have these magazines if you like.
PAGE 108 PAGE 109 86 The ordinary verb have
NOTE
a Have got can be the present perfect of get.
I left my books outside. They've got wet. (= have become)
Compare these examples:
I've got some sugar from our next-door neighbour. (= have obtained/borrowed)
I've got some sugar somewhere. I think it's in the cupboard. (= have)
For gotten (USA), • 303 (5d).
b When have got means 'have obtained', 'have received', we can use it in the infinitive or


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ing-form or after a modal verb.
We're grateful to have (got) somewhere to live. (to have got = to have found)
/ can't help having (got) a cold, can I? (having got = having caught)
They must have (got) our letter by now. (must have got = must have received)
d In negatives and questions we can use have or do as the auxiliary.
Present simple
I don't have a key. I haven't got a key.
Do you have a key? Have you got a key?
I haven't a key. (a little formal)
Have you a key? (a little formal)


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Have you a key? (a little formal)
Past simple
I didn't have a key. (most usual) I hadn't got a key. (less usual)
Did you have a key? (most usual) Had you got a key? (less usual)
I hadn't a key. (less usual)
Had you a key? (less usual)
In the present I don't have and I haven't got are both possible, although Americans
normally use I don't have. In the past we normally use did.
NOTE
In the perfect we form negatives and questions in the usual way.


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We haven't had this car for long. ~ How long had you had your old one?
86 The ordinary verb have
Have as an ordinary verb has a number of meanings.
The children are having a wonderful time. (= are experiencing)
I've had a letter. (= have received)
We'll be having a late lunch. (= will be eating)
I always have a beer when I'm watching television. (= drink)
Here have is an action verb and can be continuous (are having).
We use the auxiliary verb do in simple-tense negatives and questions.


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We don't have breakfast on Sundays.
Did you have a good journey?
We cannot use got with the ordinary verb have.
NOT The children have got a wonderful time.
NOTE
a Compare these two sentences.
Action: We often have a game of cards. (= play)
State: We have/ We've got a pack of cards. (= own, possess)
b For we're having a new shower installed, • 111. 11 BE, HAVE AND DO PAGE 110
87 Empty verbs
1 Compare these sentences.
We often swim in the pool.
We often have a swim in the pool.


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We often have a swim in the pool.
The sentences have a very similar meaning. We can express some actions as a verb
(swim) or a verb + object (have a swim). The verb have is empty of meaning. Have
is the most common empty verb, but we can also use take, give, make and go.
These are all ordinary verbs and can be continuous.
We were having a swim.
2 Verb Empty verb + object
Leisure activities walk have/take a walk/go for a walk
run have a run/go for a run
jog have a jog/go for a jog


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jog have a jog/go for a jog
ride have a ridel go for a ride
swim have a swim/go for a swim
Resting and sleeping sit down have/take a seat
rest have/take a rest
lie down have a lie-down
sleep have a sleep
Eating and drinking eat have a meal/a snack/something to eat
drink have a drink/something to drink
Washing (yourself) wash have a wash
bath have/take a bath
shower have/take a shower
Speech talk have a talk/a word
chat have a chat
argue have an argument
explain give an explanation


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explain give an explanation
complain make a complaint
suggest make a suggestion
Others act take action
decide make/take a decision
go/travel make a journey/take a trip
guess make/have a guess
laugh/smile give a laugh/smile
look have/take a look
try/attempt have a try/make an attempt
visit pay someone a visit
work do some work
3 Most expressions with empty verbs mean the complete action. A swim means a
period of swimming from start to finish. A walk means a complete journey on foot


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which we do for pleasure.
Helen jumped in the water and swam a few strokes.
Helen went to the pool and had a swim.
We missed the bus, so we walked.
It was a lovely day so we went for a walk. PAGE 111 88 The ordinary verb do
4 Compare the use of the adverb and the adjective in these sentences.
Adverb Adjective
I washed quickly. I had a quick wash.
They argued passionately. They had a passionate argument.
It is often easier to use the adjective pattern.
I had a good long sleep.


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I had a good long sleep.
This is neater than I slept well and for a long time.
88 The ordinary verb do
1 We can use do as an ordinary verb.
I've done something silly. We did the journey in three hours.
What subjects are you doing? I'll do the potatoes for you.
2 These are the forms of the ordinary verb do.
Present simple Present continuous
I/you/we/they do I am doing
he/she/it does you/we/they are doing
he/she/it is doing
Past simple Past continuous
everyone did I/he/she/it was doing


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everyone did I/he/she/it was doing
you/we/they were doing
Present perfect Present perfect continuous
I/you/we/they have done I/you/we/they have been doing
he/she/it has done he/she/it has been doing
Past perfect Past perfect continuous
everyone had done everyone had been doing
We form negatives and questions in the same way as with other verbs. In simple
tenses we use the auxiliary do.
Tom doesn't do chemistry any more.
He isn't doing biology now either.
Did you do games yesterday afternoon?


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Did you do games yesterday afternoon?
What have you been doing lately?
We can also use the negative imperative don't and the emphatic do before the
ordinary verb.
Don't do anything dangerous.
Your sister did do well in the competition, didn't she? 11 BE, HAVE AND DO PAGE 112
3 The ordinary verb do has a number of uses.
a We use do for an action when we do not say what the action is. This may be
because we do not know or do not want to say.
What are you doing? ~ I'm working out this sum.


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What are you doing? ~ I'm working out this sum.
You can do lots of exciting things at Adventure World!
Guess what we did yesterday.
b We also use do to mean 'carry out', 'work at', 'study' or 'complete'.
Have you done your exercises?
They're doing some repairs to the roof.
We did the job in an hour.
c In informal English we can use do instead of another verb when we are talking
about doing a job.
The roof was damaged. They're doing it now. (= repairing)
I've done the shoes. (= cleaned)


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I've done the shoes. (= cleaned)
The restaurant does Sunday lunches. (= serves)
d We can also use do with a gerund. • 138(2)
Someone ought to do the washing.
89 Do and make
1 Do and make are both action verbs. (For do, • 88.) Make often means 'produce' or
'create'.
Who made this table? We make a small profit.
They've made a new James Bond film. I was just making some tea.
Here are some expressions with do and make.
do your best (= try hard), do business (with someone), do a course, do someone a


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favour, do good (= help others), do harm, do homework/housework, do a test/an
exam, do well (= be successful)
make arrangements, make a (phone) call, make an effort, make an excuse, make a
fuss, make love, make a mistake, make a mess, make money, make a noise, make
progress, make a speech, make trouble
For make as an empty verb in expressions like make a suggestion, • 87.
NOTE
For These players will make a good team, •9(1).
For The story really made me laugh, • 127(3a).


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For The story really made me laugh, • 127(3a).
2 Here are some more uses of do.
What does Jason do? (= What's Jason's job?)
How are you doing? (= getting on)
I don't want much for lunch. A sandwich will do. (= will be all right)
I could do with a coffee. (= want)
We shall probably have to do without a holiday. (= not have)
The boss wants to see you. It's something to do with the new computer.
(= connected with). 12Modal verbs
90 Summary
Introduction to modal verbs • 91


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90 Summary
Introduction to modal verbs • 91
The modal verbs (or 'modal auxiliary verbs') are will, would, shall, should, can,
could, may, might, must, need, ought to and dare.
I must go now. We can park here.
There are some expressions with have and be which have similar meanings to the
modal verbs.
I have to go now. We're allowed to park here.
These expressions can have other forms such as a past tense or a to-infinitive.
I had to hurry to get here. We asked to be allowed to go.


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Modal verbs express meanings such as necessity and possibility. We can use
modal verbs to tell or allow people to do things; or we can use them to say how
certain or uncertain we are.
Necessity: must, have (got) to, needn't and mustn't • 92
I must go to the bank.
Obligation and advice: should, ought to etc • 93
You should answer the letter.
Permission: can, could, may, might and be allowed to • 94
We can leave our luggage at the hotel.
Certainty: will, must and can't


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Certainty: will, must and can't
Mandy will be in London now.
Probability: should and ought to • 96
The rain should stop soon.
Possibility: may, might, can and could • 97
The keys may be in my coat pocket.
PAGE 113 12 MODAL VERBS PAGE 114
Ability: can, could and be able to • 98
Most people can swim.
Unreal situations: would • 99
Six weeks' holiday would be nice.
Habits: will, would and used to • 100
People will leave litter everywhere.
The verb dare • 101
I daren't go up on the roof.


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The verb dare • 101
I daren't go up on the roof.
OVERVIEW: the use of modal verbs • 102
91 Introduction to modal verbs
1 A modal verb is always the first word in the verb phrase. It always has the same
form and never has an ending such as 5, ingot ed. After a modal verb we put a bare
infinitive.
It will be windy. You should look after your money.
A modal does not have a to-infinitive after it (except ought).
You must give me your honest opinion.
NOTE


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You must give me your honest opinion.
NOTE
a Some modal verbs have a spoken weak form. •55(1)
b We can stress a modal if we want to put emphasis on its meaning.
You really must be quiet. (It is very necessary.)
You 'may be right. (It is not certain.)
c Will and would have the written short forms 'll and 'd.
2 Like the other auxiliary verbs (be, have and do), modal verbs are important in
negatives, questions, tags and so on. A modal verb can have not after it, and it


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comes before the subject in questions.
Your desk shouldn't be untidy.
How should I organize my work?
. You should take notes, shouldn't you? ~ I suppose I should.
We do not use do with a modal. NOT HOW do I should organize my work?
3 A modal verb does not usually have a tense. It can refer to the present or the future.
Present: We must know now. The letter might be in my bag.
Future: We must know soon. The letter might arrive tomorrow.


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For the past we use had to, was able to etc, or we use a modal verb + have.
Past: We had to know then. The letter might have arrived yesterday.
But in some contexts could, would, should and might are past forms of can, will,
shall and may.
I can't remember the formula. (present)
I couldn't remember the formula. (past)
We may have problems. (direct speech)
We thought we might have problems. (indirect speech) PAGE 115 92 Necessity


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4 A modal verb can go with the perfect, the continuous or the passive.
Perfect: I may have shown you this before.
Continuous: They may be showing the film on television.
Passive: We may be shown the results later.
Perfect + continuous: You must have been dreaming.
Perfect + passive: The car must have been stolen.
5 There are some expressions with have and be which have very similar meanings to
the modal verbs.
a The main expressions are have to, be able to, be allowed to and be going to.


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You have to fill in this form. I was able to cancel the order.
There are some important differences in the use of modal verbs and these
expressions, e.g. must and have to, • 92; can/may and be allowed to, • 94; and
could and was able to, • 98. For will and be going to, • 74; and for be to, • 76.
b We can use have to, be able to, etc to talk about the past.
We had to do a test yesterday. NOT We must do a test yesterday.
We can also use them in the infinitive and ing-form.


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I want to be allowed to take part. NOT to may take part
Being able to see properly is important. NOT canning to see
A modal verb does not have an infinitive or ing-form.
c We sometimes put a modal verb in front of have to, be able to etc, or we use two
such expressions together.
You will have to hurry. I might be able to do a little revision.
We ought to be allowed to decide for ourselves.
People used to have to wash clothes by hand.
You aren't going to be able to finish it in time.


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You aren't going to be able to finish it in time.
But we cannot use two modals together. NOT You will must hurry.
6 Some nouns, adjectives and adverbs and ordinary verbs have similar meanings to
modal verbs.
There's no chance of everything being ready on time.
It's essential/vital you keep me informed.
They'll probably give us our money back. • 214
The passengers managed to scramble to safety. • 98(3a)
92 Necessity: must, have (got) to, needn't and
mustn't
1 Must and have to


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mustn't
1 Must and have to
a This is a rule in a British Rail leaflet about a Young Person's Railcard.
You must buy your ticket before starting your journey, unless you join the train at
a station where ticket purchase facilities are not available.
Now look at this conversation.
Abigail: There isn't much time to spare. You'd better buy your ticket on the train.
Phil: I can't do that. I want to use this railcard. I have to buy the ticket before
I get on. 12 MODAL VERBS PAGE l16


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I get on. 12 MODAL VERBS PAGE l16
When we talk about necessity in the present or the near future, we can use either
must or have (got) to. But there is a difference in meaning. We normally use must
when the speaker feels the necessity and have to when the necessity is outside the
speaker.
You must buy your ticket before starting your journey.
I have to buy the ticket before I get on the train.
The leaflet uses must because the rule is made by British Rail, and they are the


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authority. Phil uses have to because the rule is not his, and the necessity results
from the situation.
You must... is a way of ordering someone to do something. You have to... is a way
of telling them what is necessary in the situation.
You must fill in a form. (I'm telling you.)
You have to fill in a form. (That's the rule.)
I must go on a diet. I'm getting overweight.
I have to go on a diet. The doctor has told me to.
NOTE
a Compare the meaning of must and have to in questions.


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Must I write these letters now? (= Do you insist that I write them?)
Do I have to write these letters now? (= Is it necessary for me to write them?)
b We can also use be to for an order by a person in authority. • 76(2)
The doctor says I'm to go on a diet.
But have to is much more common than be to.
c Be obliged to and be required to also express necessity. Both expressions are rather formal.
You are obliged to/are required to sign a declaration.


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b We sometimes use must "for things we think are necessary because they are so
enjoyable.
You really must watch this new Canadian soap opera.
We must have lunch together.
c Must has no past tense, no perfect or continuous form and no infinitive or
ing-form. We use have to instead.
I had to pay £15 for this railcard last week.
We've had to make a few changes.
I'm having to spend a lot of time travelling.
I wasn't expecting to have to look after the children.


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It's no fun having to stand the whole journey.
You will have to pay the full standard single fare.
2 Have to and have got to
a Both have to and have got to express the same meaning: necessity which is outside
the speaker.
I have to take an exam in June.
I have got to take/I've got to take an exam in June.
Have to is common in both formal and informal English, but have got to is informal.
b We use got only in simple tenses, but have to has all the forms of an ordinary verb.


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Father was so ill we were having to sit up with him night after night.
I don't want to have to punish you.
We cannot use got here. PAGE 117 92 Necessity
In the past simple had to is more usual than had got to.
I couldn't go to the dance. I had to finish my project.
c With have to, we use do in negatives and questions.
We don't have to pay. Does the winner have to make a speech?
With have got to, we use have as an auxiliary.
We haven't got to pay. Has the winner got to make a speech?


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For American English, • 303(5c).
In past simple negatives and questions we almost always use did... have to, not
had... got to.
Did you have to wait long?
3 No necessity
a Needn't and don't have to
We use needn't and don't have to/haven't got to to say that something is
unnecessary.
You need not always make an appointment.
You do not always have to make an appointment.
Often we can use either form. But there is a difference similar to the one between


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must and have (got) to. With needn't, the lack of necessity is felt by the speaker.
With don't have to, it results from the situation.
You needn't take me to the station. I can walk.
You don't have to take me to the station. Alan's giving me a lift.
b Need as an ordinary verb
Need to means the same as have to.
The colours have to/need to match.
The figure doesn't have to/doesn't need to be exact.
NOTE
a Americans use don't/doesn't need to, not needn't. • 303(9)


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b For This carpet needs cleaning, • 113(1).
c We can also use need as a noun, especially in the phrase no need.
There's no need to get up early.
c Needn't have done and didn't need to
We use these forms to talk about an unnecessary past action. If something
happened which we now know was unnecessary, we usually use needn't
have done.
We needn't have made these sandwiches. No one's eaten any.
(We made them, but it wasn't necessary.)
Didn't need to usually means that the action did not happen.


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We didn't need to make any sandwiches. We knew that people were bringing
their own. (We didn't make them because it wasn't necessary.)
But we can also use didn't need to for something unnecessary that actually
happened.
We didn't need to make these sandwiches. No one's eaten any.
We can also use didn't have to.
Fortunately we didn't have to pay for the repairs. 12 MODAL VERBS PAGE 118
4 Necessity not to do something
a We use mustn't to tell someone not to do something.


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You mustn't forget your railcard. We mustn't lose this game.
The meaning is the same as Don't forget your railcard. The speaker feels the
necessity. Compare You must remember your railcard.
b Mustn't has a different meaning from needn't/don't have to. Compare these
sentences.
I needn't run. I've got plenty of time.
I mustn't run. I've got a weak heart.
c We can use mustn't or may not to forbid something.
Students must not/may not use dictionaries in the examination.


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Here the speaker or writer is the authority, the person who feels the necessity to
stop the use of dictionaries. But if we are talking about rules made by other people,
we use can't or be allowed to. • 94(3)
We can't use/We aren't allowed to use dictionaries in the exam.
93 Obligation and advice: should, ought to etc
1 Should and ought to
a We use should and ought to for obligation and advice, to say what is the right thing
or the best thing to do.


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or the best thing to do.
They should build/ought to build more hospitals.
People shouldn't leave/oughtn't to leave litter all over the place.
You should go I ought to go to York. It's an interesting place.
I shouldn't leave/oughtn't to leave things until the last moment.
Who should we invite?/ Who ought we to invite1.
Should and ought to are not as strong as must.
You should tour in a group. (It's a good idea to.)
You must tour in a group. (It's essential.)


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You must tour in a group. (It's essential.)
But in formal rules should is sometimes a more polite and less emphatic
alternative to must.
Passengers should check in at least one hour before departure time.
b We can use the continuous or perfect after should and ought to.
I should be doing some work really.
You should have planted these potatoes last month.
After all the help Guy has had, he ought to have thanked you.
The perfect here means that the right action did not happen. Compare had to,


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where the action really happened.
I ought to have left a tip.
(Leaving a tip was the right thing to do, but I didn't leave one.)
I had to leave a tip.
(It was necessary to leave a tip, so I did leave one.) PAGE 119 94 Permission
2 Had better
We also use had better to say what is the best thing to do in a particular situation.
You're ill. You had better see a doctor, NOT You have better see a doctor.
I'd better tidy this room up.


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I'd better tidy this room up.
Had better is stronger than should or ought to, although it is not as strong as must.
I'd better tidy up means that I am going to tidy up, because it is the best thing to do.
The negative is had better not.
Come on. We'd better not waste any time.
NOTE
With had better we normally use an indirect question rather than a direct one.
Do you think I'd better call a doctor?
3 Be supposed to
We use be supposed to for what people expect to happen because it is the normal


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way of doing things or because it has been ordered or arranged.
When you've paid, you're supposed to take your receipt to the counter over
there. ~ Oh, I see.
Is this food supposed to be kept cool? ~ Yes, put it in the fridge.
This jacket is supposed to have been cleaned, but it looks dirty.
You weren't supposed to mention my secret. ~ Oh, sorry.
We can also use be supposed to for what people say.
Too much sugar is supposed to be bad for you.
94 Permission: can, could, may, might and be


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94 Permission: can, could, may, might and be
allowed to
1 Giving and refusing permission
a We use can or may to give permission. May is formal and used mainly in writing.
You can use my phone if you like. Anyone can join the club.
Any person over 18 years may/can apply to join the club.
b We use the negative forms cannot/can't and may not to refuse permission.
I'm afraid you can't just walk in here.
Customers may not bring their own food into this cafe.
NOTE


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NOTE
Here are some other ways of refusing permission.
Tourists must not take money out of the country. • 92(4c)
Smoking is prohibited/is not permitted on school premises.
No picnics. (mainly written)
2 Asking permission
We use can, could or may to ask permission.
Can I take your umbrella? ~ Of course you can.
Could I borrow this calculator, please? ~ Well, I need it actually.
May we come in?~ Of course. 12 MODAL VERBS PAGE 120


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Here could means a more distant possibility than can and so is less direct, more
tentative. May is rather formal.
NOTE
We can also use might to ask permission, but it is both formal and tentative.
I was wondering if I might borrow your car for the afternoon.
3 Talking about permission
a We sometimes talk about permission when we are not giving it or asking for it. To
do this, we can use can referring to the present or the future and could referring to
the past.


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the past.
I can stay up as late as I like. My parents don't mind.
These yellow lines mean that you can't park here.
At one time anyone could go and live in the USA.
We cannot use may here because we are not giving or asking permission.
NOT I may stay up late.
b We can also use be allowed to.
I'm allowed to stay up as late as I like.
Was Tina allowed to leave work early?
You won't be allowed to take photos.
Be allowed to means that the permission does not depend on the speaker or the


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person spoken to. Compare these two sentences.
May we leave early, please? (= Will you allow it?)
Are we allowed to leave early? (= Is it allowed?/What is the rule?)
c We use be allowed to (not can or may) in the perfect and the infinitive.
Newspapers have not been allowed to report what is going on.
I didn't expect to be allowed to look round the factory.
d In the past, we make a difference between general permission and permission


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which resulted in an action. For general permission we use could or was/were
allowed to.
Years ago visitors to Stonehenge could go/were allowed to go right up to the
stones.
For an action that someone did with permission, we use was/were allowed to.
The five students were allowed to go right up to the stones.
95 Certainty: will, must and can't
1 We can use these verbs to say that something is certainly true or untrue.
There's someone at the door. ~ It'll be the milkman.


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You got up at four o'clock! Well, you must be tired.
This can't be Roland's textbook. He doesn't do physics.
Will expresses a prediction. It means that something is certainly true, even though
we cannot see that it is true. Must means that the speaker sees something as
necessarily and logically true. Can't means that the speaker sees it as logically
impossible for something to be true.
Must and can't are opposites.
The bill can't be so much. There must be some mistake. PAGE 121 96 Probability


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NOTE
a In informal English we can sometimes use have (got) to for logical necessity.
There has to/has got to be some mistake.
b We can also use be sure/bound to.
Carl is sure to/is bound to be sitting in a cafe somewhere.
c For can't and mustn't in the USA, • 303(10).
2 In questions we normally use can or will.
Who will/can that be at the door? Can it really be true?
But can for possibility has a limited use in statements. • 97(2e)


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3 We can use the continuous or the perfect after will, must and can't.
Where's Carl?~ He'll be sitting in a cafe somewhere, I expect.
The bus is ten minutes late. It must be coming soon.
This glass is cracked. Someone must have dropped it.
I can't have gone to the wrong house. I checked the address.
Compare must have done expressing certainty about the past and had to
expressing a past necessity.
This film seems very familiar. I must have seen it before.


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Everyone had been telling me about the film. I had to see it.
But for another meaning of had to, • (5).
4 Must do is usually a kind of order, a way of telling someone to do something. Must
be doing usually means it is logically necessary that something is happening.
You've got exams soon. You must work. (order)
Paul isn't at home. He must be working. (logical necessity)
5 We can use would, had to and couldn't when something seemed certain in the past.


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There was someone at the door. It would be the milkman.
The fingerprints were the husband's, so he had to be the murderer.
Harold stared in amazement. It couldn't be true!
96 Probability: should and ought to
We use should and ought to to say that something is probable, either in the present
or the future.
They should have/ought to have our letter by now.
We should know/ought to know the result soon.
In the negative the usual form is shouldn't.
We shouldn't have long to wait.


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We shouldn't have long to wait.
Should and ought to have the additional meaning 'if all goes well'. We cannot use
these verbs for things going wrong.
The train should be on time. but NOT The train should be late.
NOTE
To express probability we can also use be likely to or will probably.
We're likely to know the result soon./We'll probably know the result soon. 12 MODAL VERBS PAGE 122
97 Possibility: may, might, can and could
GOING TO LONDON


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GOING TO LONDON
Leon: I may drive up to London on Saturday. There are one or two things I need
to do there.
Simon: I'd go early if I were you. The motorway can get very busy, even on a
Saturday. You may get stuck in the traffic.
Leon: Well, I didn't want to go too early.
Simon: You could go on the train of course.
Leon: Yes, that may not be a bad idea. I might do that. Have you got a timetable?
Simon: I might have. I'll just have a look.
1 May and might


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1 May and might
a We use may and might to say that something is possibly true.
This old picture may/might be valuable.
That may not/might not be a bad idea.
We can also use may and might for an uncertain prediction or intention.
You may/might get stuck in traffic if you don't go early.
I'm not sure, but I may/might drive up to London on Saturday.
There is almost no difference in meaning, but may is a little stronger than might.
NOTE
a Might not has a short form.
That mightn't be a bad idea.


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That mightn't be a bad idea.
But mayn't is very old-fashioned. We use may not.
b There are other ways of being less than certain in English.
Perhaps/Maybe the picture is valuable.
It's possible the picture is valuable./There's a possibility the picture is valuable.
This toaster seems to/appears to work all right.
I think that's a good idea.
We write the adverb maybe as one word.
b We do not often use may or might in questions.
Do you think you'll get the job?


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Do you think you'll get the job?
c We can use the perfect or the continuous after may and might.
I don't know where the paper is. I may have thrown it away.
Tina isn't at home. She may be working late.
I might be playing badminton tomorrow.
d We can use a statement with might to make a request.
If you're going to the post office, you might get some stamps.
Might can also express criticism that something is not done.
You might wash up occasionally.


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You might wash up occasionally.
Someone might have thanked me for all my trouble.
Could is also possible here.
e We use might as well to say that something is the best thing to do, but only
because there is no better alternative.
I can't repair this lamp. I might as well throw it away.
Do you want to go to this party? ~ Well, I suppose we might as well. 97 Possibility
2 Can and could
a We use can and could to suggest possible future actions.
You can/could go on the train, of course.


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You can/could go on the train, of course.
We can/could have a party. ~ Yes, why not?
If we're short of money, I can/could sell my jewellery.
Can is stronger than could, which expresses a more distant possibility.
b We use can and could in requests. Could is more tentative.
Can/Could you wait a moment, please?
Can/Could I have one of those leaflets, please?
We also use can for an offer.
I can lend you a hand. Can I give you a lift?


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I can lend you a hand. Can I give you a lift?
c Can and could express only a possibility. They do not mean that something is likely
to happen.
We can/could have a party. ~ Yes, why not? (suggestion)
We may/might have a party. ~ Oh, really? (uncertain intention)
d For something that is possibly true, we use could.
Tina could be working late tonight.
The timetable could be in this drawer.
You could have forgotten to post the letter.
We can also use may or might here, but not can.


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We can also use may or might here, but not can.
For an uncertain prediction about the future, we also use could, may or might but
not can.
The motorway could be busy tomorrow.
e There is a special use of can to say that something is generally possible.
You can make wine from bananas. Smoking can damage your health.
Can often has the meaning 'sometimes'.
Housewives can feel lonely. (= They sometimes feel lonely.)
The motorway can get busy. (= It sometimes gets busy.)
NOTE


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NOTE
Tend to has a similar meaning.
Americans tend to eat a lot of meat.
Dog owners tend to look like their dogs.
f Can't and couldn't express impossibility.
She can't be very nice if no one likes her.
You can't/couldn't have seen Bob this morning. He's in Uganda.
Compare can't with may not/might not.
This answer can't be right. It must be wrong.
(= It is impossible for this answer to be right.)
This answer may not/might not be right. It may/might be wrong.


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(= It is possible that this answer isn't right.)
PAGE 123 12 MODAL VERBS
3 Possibility in the past
May/might/could + perfect refers to something in the past that is possibly true.
Miranda may have missed the train.
(= Perhaps Miranda missed the train.)
The train might have been delayed.
(= Perhaps the train has been delayed.)
The letter could have got lost in the post.
(= It is possible that the letter has got lost in the post.)
NOTE


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NOTE
Could have done can also mean that a chance to do something was not taken. • 98(3d)
I could have complained, but I decided not to.
98 Ability: can, could and be able to
1 Can and could
We use these verbs to say that something is possible because someone has the
ability to do it. We use can for the present and could for the past.
Nicola can play chess.
Can you draw a perfect circle?
We can't move this piano. It's too heavy.
Nicola could play chess when she was six.


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Nicola could play chess when she was six.
My grandfather could walk on his hands.
PAGE 124
can't
The negative of can is cannot , written as one word. It has a short form
As well as physical or mental ability, we also use can/could for a chance, an
opportunity to do something.
We can sit in the garden when it's nice.
When we lived in aflat, we couldn't keep a dog.
NOTE
a With some verbs we can use a simple tense for ability.
I (can) speak French. We didn't/couldn't understand the instructions.


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b For can/could expressing a perception, e.g. I can see a light, • 62(7).
2 Be able to
a Be able to in the present tense is a little more formal and less usual than can.
The pupils can already read/are already able to read.
The duchess can fly/is able to fly an aeroplane.
b We use be able to (not can) in the perfect and the infinitive or ing-form.
Mr Fry has been ill for years. He hasn't been able to work for some time.
It's nice to be able to relax.


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It's nice to be able to relax.
Being able to speak the language is a great advantage.
c We use will be able to for future ability or opportunity.
When you have completed the course, you will be able to impress others with your
sparkling conversation.
One day people will be able to go on a package tour of the solar system. PAGE 125 99 Unreal situations: would
But we normally use can to suggest a possible future action. • 97(2a)
We can discuss the details later.
3 Could and was/were able to


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3 Could and was/were able to
a In the past, we make a difference between a general ability and an ability which
resulted in an action. For a general ability we use could or was/were able to.
Kevin could walk/was able to walk when he was only eleven months old.
But we use was/were able to to talk about an action in a particular situation, when
someone had the ability to do something and did it.
The injured man was able to walk to a phone box.
NOT The injured man could walk to a phone box.


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NOT The injured man could walk to a phone box.
We can also express the meaning with managed to or succeeded in.
Detectives were able to/managed to identify the murderer.
Detectives succeeded in identifying the murderer.
b But in negatives and questions we can use either was/were able to or could because
we are not saying that the action really happened.
Detectives weren't able to identify/couldn't identify the murderer.
Were you able to get/Could you get tickets for the show?
NOTE


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NOTE
It is safer to use was/were able to when the question with could might be understood as a
request. Could you get tickets? can be a request meaning 'Please get tickets'.
c We normally use could (not was/were able to) with verbs of perception and verbs of
thinking.
I could see smoke on the horizon.
We could understand that Emily preferred to be alone.
d To say that someone had the ability or the chance to do something but didn't do it,
we use could have done.


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we use could have done.
He could have walked there, but he decided to wait where he was.
I could have got tickets, but there were only very expensive ones left.
NOTE
Could have done can also express a past action that possibly happened. • 97(3)
The murderer could have driven here and dumped the body. We don't know yet if he did.
e Could can also mean 'would be able to'.
I couldn't do your job. I'd be hopeless at it.
The factory could produce a lot more goods if it was modernized.


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99 Unreal situations: would
1 Compare these sentences.
We're going to have a barbecue. ~ Oh, that'll be nice.
We're thinking of having a barbecue. ~ Oh, that would be nice.
Here will is a prediction about the future, about the barbecue. Would is a
prediction about an unreal situation, about a barbecue which may or may not
happen. 12 MODAL VERBS PAGE 126
There is often a phrase or clause explaining the unreal situation we are talking
about.
It would be nice to have a barbecue.


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about.
It would be nice to have a barbecue.
You wouldn't be much use in a crisis.
No one would pay taxes if they didn't have to.
For would with an if-clause, • 257(4).
For would looking forward from the past, • 80(2).
2 In a request would is less direct, more tentative than will.
Will/Would you pass me the sugar?
We can also use would in a statement to avoid sounding impolite, especially when
disagreeing with someone.
I wouldn't agree with that.


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I wouldn't agree with that.
I would point out that this has caused us some inconvenience.
3 We also use the expressions would like and would rather.
a Would like is less direct than want, which can sound abrupt.
I want a drink. (direct, perhaps impolite)
I'd like a drink. (less direct, more polite)
Compare like and would like.
I like to climb/I like climbing that mountain.
(I have climbed it a number of times, and enjoyed it.)
I'd like to climb that mountain.
(= I want to climb it.)


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(= I want to climb it.)
We can also use would with love, hate, enjoy and mind.
My sister would love to do deep-sea diving.
I'd hate to be in your shoes.
We'd enjoy a trip to Las Vegas. We've never been there before.
I wouldn't mind coming with you.
b Would rather means 'prefer' or 'would prefer'.
I'd rather walk than hang around for a bus.
The guide would rather we kept together.
Would you rather eat now or later?


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Would you rather eat now or later?
Would rather is followed by a bare infinitive (walk) or a clause (we kept together).
The negative is would rather not.
I'd rather not take any risks.
NOTE
We can also use would sooner.
I'd sooner walk than hang around for a bus.
4 In some contexts we can use either would or should after I/we. The meaning is the
same, but should is a little formal.
I would/should like to thank you for all you've done.


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We wouldn't/shouldn't be able to get around without a car. PAGE 127 101 The verb dare
100 Habits: will, would and used to
1 Will and would
We can use these verbs for habits, actions which are repeated again and again. We
use will for present habits and would for past habits.
Every day Jane will come home from school and ring up the friends she's just been
talking to.
Warm air will rise.
In those days people would make their own entertainment.


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The meaning is almost the same as a simple tense: Every day Jane comes home...
But we use will as a kind of prediction. The action is so typical and happens so
regularly that we can predict it will continue.
2 Used to
a Used to expresses a past habit or state.
I used to come here when I was a child.
Before we had television, people used to make their own entertainment.
I used to have a bicycle, but I sold it.
The meaning is similar to would for past habits, but used to is more common in


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informal English. I used to come here means that at one period I came here
regularly, but then I stopped.
There is no present-tense form.
NOT -I use to come here now.
b Used is normally an ordinary verb. We use the auxiliary did in negatives and
questions.
There didn't use to be/never used to be so much crime.
What kind of books did you use to read as a child?
NOTE
Used as an auxiliary is rather old-fashioned and formal.
There used not to be so much crime. What kind of books used you to read?


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c Compare these sentences.
We used to live in the country. But then we moved to London.
We're used to life/We're used to living in the country now. But at first it was quite
a shock, after London.
In the second example are used to means 'are accustomed to'.
101 The verb dare
Dare can be either a modal verb or an ordinary verb. It means 'not to be afraid to
do something'. We use it in negatives, questions and similar contexts, but not
usually to say that an action really happened.


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usually to say that an action really happened.
I daren't look/don't dare (to) look at the bill.
Dare you say/Do you dare (to) say what you're thinking?
The police didn't dare (to) approach the building.
I don't expect many people dare (to) walk along here at night. 12 MODAL VERBS
NOTE
a Americans mostly use the patterns with to.
b We use How dare... ?for an angry protest.
How dare you speak to me like that?
c I dare say means 'probably'.
I dare say you'll feel better tomorrow.


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I dare say you'll feel better tomorrow.
102 Overview: the use of modal verbs
Deciding/Allowing/Telling Prediction/Possibility
will
Deciding • 71 (4) Prediction (future) • 71 (3)
I'll have coffee. Tom will be at home tomorrow.
Willingness • 71(5) Prediction (present) • 95
I'll help you. Tom will be at home now.
Will you help me? Prediction (habit) • 100(1)
Formal order • 71 (9) Tom will always arrive late.
All pupils will attend.
shall
Asking what to do • 71(7) Prediction (future) •71(2)


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What shall I do? I/We shall be away next week.
Shall I help you?
Promise •71(8)
You shall have the money.
Formal rule • 71(9)
A game shall last one hour.
would
Request • 99(2) Prediction (unreal) • 99(1)
Would you help me? A holiday would be great.
Willingness (past) • 80(2) Prediction (past) • 80(2)
The baby wouldn't go to sleep. The result would surprise us all.
Prediction (past habit) • 100(1)
Tom would always arrive late.
must
Necessity • 92 Logical necessity • 95


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must
Necessity • 92 Logical necessity • 95
You must be careful. You must be tired.
needn't
No necessity • 92(3)
You needn't hurry.
mustn't
Necessity not to do something.
• 92(4)
You mustn't forget.
PAGE 128 PAGE 129 102 Overview: the use of modal verbs
should
Obligation/Advice • 93 Probability • 96
You should work hard. It should be fine tomorrow.
(In some sub clauses)
If the phone should ring, don't
answer it. • 258
It is vital we should meet. • 242(2)
ought to


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It is vital we should meet. • 242(2)
ought to
Obligation/Advice • 93 Probability • 96
You ought to work hard. It ought to be fine tomorrow.
may
Permission • 94 Possibility • 97
You may go now. The plan may go wrong.
May I ask a question? We may move house.
might
Request/Order • 97(1d) Possibility • 97
You might help me. The plan might go wrong.
We might move house.
can
Permission • 94 General possibility • 97(2e)
You can go now. Maths can be fun.
Can I ask a question? Impossibility • 95


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Can I ask a question? Impossibility • 95
Request • 97 (2b) The story can't be true.
Can you help me? Ability • 98
Offer • 97 (2b) I can play the piano.
Can I help you? Opportunity • 98
Suggestion • 97(2a) We can watch TV in the evenings.
We can meet later.
could
Permission (past) • 94(3) Possibility • 97
You could park here years ago. The plan could go wrong.
Asking permission • 94(2) It's perfect. It couldn't go wrong.
Could I ask a question? Ability (past) • 98


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Could I ask a question? Ability (past) • 98
Request • 97 (2b) I could play the piano when I was
Could you help me? five.
Suggestion • 97 (2a) Ability (unreal) • 98 (3e)
We could meet later. I could take better photos if I had
a better camera.
dare • 101
I didn't dare climb up. PAGE 130
13
The passive
103 Summary
The use of the passive • 104
Compare the active and passive sentences.
Active: The secretary typed the report.
Passive: The report was typed (by the secretary).


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Passive: The report was typed (by the secretary).
When the person doing the action (the secretary) is the subject, we use an active
verb. When the subject is what the action is directed at (the report), then we use a
passive verb. We can choose to talk about the secretary and what he/she did, or
about the report and what happened to it. This choice depends on what is old or
new information in the context. Old information usually comes at the beginning of


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the sentence, and new information at the end.
In a passive sentence the agent can be the new and important information (...by
the secretary.), or we can leave it out if it does not add any information. We say The
report was typed because the fact that the typing is complete is more important
than the identity of the typist.
The passive is often used in an official, impersonal style.
Form
A passive verb has a form of be and a passive participle.
Tenses and aspects in the passive • 105


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Tenses and aspects in the passive • 105
The letter was posted yesterday.
Modal verbs in the passive • 106
All tickets must be shown.
The passive with get •107
Sometimes we use get instead of be.
The letter got lost in the post.
Special patterns
The passive with verbs of giving • 108
The pupils were all given certificates. 104 The use of the passive
The passive with verbs of reporting • 109
It is said that the company is bankrupt.
The company is said to be bankrupt.


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The company is said to be bankrupt.
Passive + to-infinitive or active participle • 110
You were warned to take care.
A lot of time was spent arguing.
Patterns with have and get • 111
We use have/get something done for professional services.
I had/got the photos developed.
The passive to-infinitive and gerund • 112
We don't want to be refused entry.
I hate being photographed.
Active forms with a passive meaning • 113
The sheets need washing.
I've got some shopping to do.
The oven cleans easily.


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The oven cleans easily.
OVERVIEW: active and passive verb forms • 114
104 The use of the passive
1 The topic
Here are two paragraphs. One is about the scientist J.J. Thomson, and the other is
about the electron.
THOMSON, SIR JOSEPH JOHN ELECTRON
(1846-1940)
British physicist and mathematician A subatomic particle and one of the
and head of a group of researchers at basic constituents of matter. The
the Cavendish Laboratory in electron was discovered by J.J.


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Cambridge. Thomson discovered the Thomson. It is found in all atoms
electron. He is regarded as the and contains the smallest known
founder of modern physics. negative electrical charge.
Compare these two sentences, one from each paragraph.
Thomson discovered the electron. The electron was discovered by
Thomson.
The sentences have the same meaning, but they have different topics: they are
about different things. The topic of the first sentence is Thomson, and the topic of


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the second is the electron. The topic is the starting-point of the sentence and is
usually the subject. 13 THE PASSIVE PAGE 132
When the subject is the agent (the person or thing doing the action), then the verb
is active (discovered). When the subject is not the agent, then the verb is passive
(was discovered). The choice between active and passive is really about whether
the subject is the agent or not, whether we are talking about someone (Thomson)


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doing something, or about something (the electron) that the action is directed at.
Note that the electron is object of the active sentence and subject of the passive
sentence.
NOTE
a Usually the agent is a person and the action is directed at a thing. But this is not always so.
Lightning struck a golfer. A golfer was struck by lightning.
Here the agent is lightning and the action is directed at a golfer. The agent can also be an
abstract idea.


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abstract idea.
Ambition drove the athletes to train hard. The athletes were driven by ambition.
b For The victim was struck with a sandbag, • 228(5).
2 New information
A sentence contains a topic and also new information about the topic. The new
information usually comes at or near the end of the sentence.
Thomson discovered the electron.
The topic is Thomson. The new information is that he discovered the electron. The
electron is the important piece of new information, the point of interest.


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The new information can be the agent.
The electron was discovered by Thomson.
Here the electron is the topic. The new information is that its discoverer was
Thomson. Thomson is the point of interest, and it comes at the end of the sentence
in a phrase with by. Here are some more examples of the agent as point of interest.
James Bond was created by Ian Fleming.
The scheme has been put forward by the government.
The first football World Cup was won by Uruguay.


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The first football World Cup was won by Uruguay.
In a passive sentence the point of interest can be other information such as time,
place, manner or instrument.
The electron was discovered in 1897.
The electron was discovered at Cambridge.
The gas should be lit carefully.
The gas should be lit with a match.
Here we do not mention the agent at all.
3 Passive sentences without an agent
a In a passive sentence we mention the agent only if it is important new


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information. There is often no need to mention it.
A DAY IN THE LIFE OF THE WORLD
Every day your heart pumps enough blood to fill the fuel tanks of about 400 cars.
The population of the world increases by about 200,000. Nine million cigarettes
are smoked. 740,000 people fly off to foreign countries.... In America 10,000
crimes are committed, and in Japan twenty million commuters cram into trains.
In Russia 1.3 million telegrams are sent.... 200,000 tons offish are caught and


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7,000 tons of wool are sheared off sheep.
(from J. Reid It Can't Be True!) PAGE 133 104 The use of the passive
There is no need to say that nine million cigarettes are smoked by smokers all over
the world, or that in America 10,000 crimes are committed by criminals. This is
already clear from the context. Here are some more examples.
A new government has been elected. The man was arrested.
'Hamlet' was written in 1601.


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'Hamlet' was written in 1601.
It is well known that 'Hamlet' was written by Shakespeare, so we do not need to
mention it. For the same reason, we do not need to say that the man was arrested
by police or the government elected by the people.
NOTE
We use the verb bear (a child) mainly in the passive and without an agent.
Charles Dickens was born in Portsea.
b The agent may not be relevant to the message.
A large number of Sherlock Holmes films have been made.


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The atom was regarded as solid until the electron was discovered in 1897.
The makers of the films and the discoverer of the electron are not relevant. The
sentences are about the number of films and the time of the discovery.
c Sometimes we do not know the identity of the agent.
My car was stolen.
The phrase by a thief would add no information. But we can use an agent if there is
some information.
My car was stolen by two teenagers.


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My car was stolen by two teenagers.
d Sometimes we do not mention the agent because we do not want to.
Mistakes have been made.
This use of the passive without an agent is a way of not saying who is responsible.
Compare the active I/We have made mistakes.
4 Empty subjects
Even when the agent is not important or not known, we do not always use the
passive. Especially in informal speech, we can use you, one, we, they, people or


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someone as vague and 'empty' subjects. But a passive sentence is preferred in
more formal English.
Active: You/One can't do anything about it.
Passive: Nothing can be done about it.
Active: We/People use electricity for all kinds of purposes.
Passive: Electricity is used for all kinds of purposes.
Active: They're building some new houses.
Passive: Some new houses are being built.
5 Typical contexts for the passive
We can use the passive in speech, but it is more common in writing, especially in


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the impersonal style of textbooks and reports.
a To describe industrial and scientific processes
The ore is usually dug out of the ground.
The paint is then pumped into a large tank, where it is thinned.
If sulphur is heated, a number of changes can be seen. 13 THE PASSIVE PAGE 1:
b To describe historical and social processes
A new political party was formed.
Thousands of new homes have been built.
A lot of money is given to help the hungry.
c Official rules and procedures


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c Official rules and procedures
The service is provided under a contract.
This book must be returned to the library by the date above.
Application should be made in writing.
The active equivalent We provide the service..., You must return this book... is
less formal and less impersonal.
6 Verbs which cannot be passive
a An intransitive verb cannot be passive. These sentences have no passive
equivalent.
Something happened. He slept soundly. The cat ran away.


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But most phrasal and prepositional verbs which have an object can be passive.
• 105(3)
We ran over a cat./The cat was run over.
b Some state verbs cannot be passive, e.g. be, belong, exist, have (= own), lack,
resemble, seem, suit. These sentences have no passive equivalent.
Tom has a guitar. The building seemed empty.
Some verbs can be either action verbs or state verbs, e.g. measure, weigh, fit, cost.
They can be passive only when they are action verbs.


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Action & active: The decorator measured the wall.
Action & passive: The wall was measured by the decorator.
State: The wall measured three metres.
but NOT Three metres was measured by the wall.
But some state verbs can be passive, e.g. believe, intend, know, like, love, mean,
need, own, understand, want.
The building is owned by an American company.
Old postcards are wanted by collectors.
105 Tenses and aspects in the passive


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105 Tenses and aspects in the passive
The lowest monthly death toll on French roads for 30 years was announced by the
Transport Ministry for the month of August. The results were seen as a direct
triumph for the new licence laws, which led to a bitter truck drivers strike in July.
Some 789 people died on the roads last month, 217 fewer than in August last year.
(from Early Times)
Cocaine worth £290 million has been seized by the FBI in a case which is being


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called 'the chocolate connection'. The 6,000 lb of drugs were hidden in blocks of
chocolate aboard an American ship that docked in Port Newark, New Jersey, from
Ecuador.
(from The Mail on Sunday) PAGE 135 105 Tenses and aspects in the passive
1 A passive verb has a form of be and a passive participle. Be is in the same tense as
the equivalent active form. The passive participle has the same form as a past
participle: announced, called, seen.


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participle: announced, called, seen.
Active: The Ministry announced the figure. (past simple)
Passive: The figure was announced. (past simple of be + passive
participle)
NOTE For get instead of be, • 107.
a Simple tenses (simple form of be + passive participle)
Large numbers of people are killed on the roads.
The drugs were found by the police.
b The perfect (perfect of be + passive participle)
Cocaine has been seized by the FBI.
The drugs had been loaded onto the ship in Ecuador.


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c The continuous (continuous of be + passive participle)
The case is being called 'the chocolate connection'.
Three men were being questioned by detectives last night.
d Will and be going to (future of be + passive participle)
The drugs will be destroyed.
The men are going to be charged with importing cocaine.
For other modal verbs, • 106.
2 We form negatives and questions in the same way as in active sentences. In the


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negative not comes after the (first) auxiliary; in questions there is inversion of
subject and (first) auxiliary.
Negative: The drugs were not found by customs officers.
The law hasn't been changed.
Question: Where were the drugs found?
Has the law been changed?
NOTE
We use by in a question about the agent.
Who were the drugs found by?
3 When we use a phrasal or prepositional verb in the passive, the adverb or
preposition (e.g. down, for) comes after the passive participle.


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The tree was cut down last week.
Has the doctor been sent for?
Note also verb + adverb + preposition, and verbal idioms with prepositions.
Such out-of-date practices should be done away with.
The poor child is always being made fun of. 13 THE PASSIVE PAGE 136
4 We can sometimes use a participle as a modifier, like an adjective: a broken vase,
• 137. We can also put the participle after be. The vase was broken can express
either a state or an action.


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either a state or an action.
State: The vase was broken. It lay in pieces on the floor,
(be + complement) The drugs were hidden in the ship. They were in blocks of
chocolate.
Action: The vase was broken by a guest. He knocked it over.
(passive verb) The drugs were hidden (by the gang) and then loaded onto
the ship.
NOTE The vase got broken expresses an action. • 107
106 Modal verbs in the passive
1 We can use the passive with a modal verb (or an expression like have to). The


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pattern is modal verb + be + passive participle.
Stamps can be bought at any post office.
Animals should really be seen in their natural habitat.
Meals have to be prepared every day.
Many things that used to be done by hand are now done by machine.
NOTE
For an adjective ending in able/ible meaning that something 'can be done', • 285(4i).
Stamps are obtainable at any post office.
2 A modal verb can also go with the perfect and the passive together. The pattern is


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modal verb + have been + passive participle.
I can't find that piece of paper. It must have been thrown away.
The plane might have been delayed by the fog.
This bill ought to have been paid weeks ago.
107 The passive with get
1 We sometimes form the passive with get rather than with be.
The vase got broken when we moved. We get paid monthly.
It was so hot my shoulders were getting burnt.
If you don't lock your bike, it might get stolen.


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If you don't lock your bike, it might get stolen.
We use the passive with get mainly in informal English, and it has a more limited
use than be. The passive with get expresses action and change, not a state. It often
refers to something happening by accident, unexpectedly or incidentally. (Note
that the payment of salaries is a small, incidental part of a company's whole
activities.) We do not use get for a major, planned action.
NOT Wembley Stadium got built in 1923.


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NOT Wembley Stadium got built in 1923.
In simple tenses we use the auxiliary do in negatives and questions.
I forgot to leave the dustbin out, so it didn't get emptied.
How often do these offices get cleaned?
2 We also use get + passive participle in some idiomatic expressions.
There wasn't enough time to get washed. (= wash oneself)
Such expressions are: get washed, get shaved, get (un)dressed, get changed; get


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engaged, get married, get divorced; get started (= start), get lost (= lose one's way). PAGE 137 108 The passive with verbs of giving
The idioms get washed/shaved/dressed/changed are much more common than
wash myself etc. But we can use wash etc in the active without an object.
There wasn't much time to wash and change.
NOTE For I got my hair cut, • 111.
3 After get there can be an adjective in ed.
I'd just got interested in the film when the phone rang.


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(= I'd just become interested in the film ...)
Some other adjectives used after get are bored, confused, drunk, excited and tired.
108 The passive with verbs of giving
1 In the active, give can have two objects.
The nurse gives the patient a sleeping pill.
Either of these objects can be the subject of a passive sentence.
A sleeping pill is given to the patient.
The patient is given a sleeping pill.
We can use other verbs in these patterns, e.g. send, offer, award. • (3)


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2 Here are two ways in which a court case about paying damages might be reported.
MILLION POUND DAMAGES AWARDED
£1 million pound damages were awarded in the High Court in London yesterday
to a cyclist who was left completely paralysed after a road accident. The damages
are the highest ever paid to a road accident victim in a British court.
CYCLIST AWARDED MILLION POUNDS
A cyclist who was left completely paralysed after a road accident was awarded


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£1 million damages at the High Court in London yesterday. The court heard that
Mr Graham Marks was hit by a car as he was cycling along the A303 near
Sparkford in Somerset.
Compare these two sentences, one from each report.
£ 1 million damages were awarded to a cyclist.
A cyclist was awarded £1 million damages.
Both sentences are passive, but one has £1 million damages as its subject, and the
other has a cyclist as its subject. The first report is about the damages, and it tells


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us who received them. The second is about a cyclist, and it tells us what he received.
3 It is quite normal in English for the person receiving something to be the subject.
Here are some more examples.
The chairman was handed a note. I've been offered a job.
We were told all the details. The residents will be found new homes.
We can use these verbs in the passive pattern:
allow deny leave promise tell
ask feed lend refuse throw
award find offer send
bring give owe sell
buy grant pass show


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bring give owe sell
buy grant pass show
charge hand pay teach 13 THE PASSIVE PAGE 138
109 The passive with verbs of reporting
There are two special patterns with verbs of reporting.
Active: They say that elephants have good memories.
Passive: It is said that elephants have good memories-
Elephants are said to have good memories.
There is an example of each pattern in this paragraph.
STONEHENGE
It is now thought that Stonehenge - the great stone circle - dates from about


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1900 BC. Until recently the circle was popularly believed to be a Druid temple
and a place of human sacrifice, but this is not in fact so. The stones were put up
long before the Druids came to Britain.
1 It + passive verb + finite clause
It is thought that Stonehenge dates from about 1900 BC.
This pattern is often used in news reports where there is no need to mention the
source of the information.
It was reported that the army was crossing the frontier.


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It has been shown that the theory is correct.
It is proposed that prices should increase next year.
In Pattern 1 we can use these verbs:
admit declare hope propose show
agree discover intend prove state
allege establish know recommend suggest
announce estimate mention regret suppose
assume expect notice report think
believe explain object request understand
claim fear observe reveal
consider feel presume say
decide find promise see
2 Subject + passive verb + to-infinitive


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2 Subject + passive verb + to-infinitive
Compare these patterns.
Pattern 1: It is thought that Stonehenge dates from about 1900 BC.
Pattern 2: Stonehenge is thought to date from about 1900 BC.
In Pattern 2 we can use these verbs:
allege declare find presume see
assume discover intend prove show
believe estimate know report suppose
claim expect mean reveal think
consider feel observe say understand
The infinitive can also be perfect or continuous, or it can be passive.


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The army was reported to be crossing the frontier.
The prisoner is known to have behaved violently in the past.
Stonehenge is thought to have been built over a period of 500 years. 110 Passive + to-infinitive or active participle
NOTE
We can use the pattern with the subject there.
There is considered to be little chance of the plan succeeding.
3 It + passive verb + to-infinitive
Active: The committee agreed to support the idea.
Passive: It was agreed to support the idea.


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Passive: It was agreed to support the idea.
We can use this pattern only with the verbs agree, decide and propose.
4 The agent with verbs of reporting
We can express the agent in all three patterns.
It was reported by the BBC that the army was crossing the frontier.
The theory has been shown by scientists to be correct.
It was agreed by the committee to support the idea.
110 Passive + to-infinitive or active participle


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110 Passive + to-infinitive or active participle
Some patterns with a verb + object + infinitive/active participle have a passive
equivalent.
1 Infinitive
a Active: Police advise drivers to use an alternative route.
Passive: Drivers are advised to use an alternative route.
We can use this passive pattern with verbs like tell, ask, persuade, warn, advise,
• 122(2a); and verbs like force, allow, • 122(2b).
NOTE
We can also use a finite clause after the passive verb.


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Drivers are advised that an alternative route should be used.
b Active: The terrorists made the hostages lie down.
Passive: The hostages were made to lie down.
In the passive pattern we always use a to-infinitive (to lie) even if in the active there
is a bare infinitive (lie). This happens after make and after verbs of perception such
as see.
NOTE
We do not often use let in the passive. We use be allowed to instead.
The hostages were allowed to talk to each other.
2 Active participle


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2 Active participle
Active: The detective saw the woman putting the jewellery in her bag.
Passive: The woman was seen putting the jewellery in her bag.
Active: The officials kept us waiting for half an hour.
Passive: We were kept waiting for half an hour.
In this pattern we can use verbs of perception (see) and catch, find, keep, leave,
lose, spend, and waste.
PAGE 139 13 THE PASSIVE
3 Overview
With a participle With an infinitive
Active Someone saw him running away. Someone saw him run away.


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Passive He was seen running away. He was seen to run away.
111 Patterns with have and get
1 The active: have/get + object + infinitive
This pattern means 'cause someone to do something'. Have takes a bare infinitive
and get a to-infinitive.
I had the garage service my car.
I got the garage to service my car.
This active pattern with have is more common in the USA than in Britain, where it
is rather formal. Get is informal.
2 The passive: have/get + object + passive participle


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This pattern means 'cause something to be done'.
I had my car serviced.
I got my car serviced.
This means that I arranged for someone, for example a garage, to service my car; I
did not service it myself. We use this pattern mainly to talk about professional
services to a customer.
You should have/get the job done professionally.
I had/got the machine repaired only last week.
We're having/getting a new kitchen fitted.
Where did you have/get your hair cut?


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Where did you have/get your hair cut?
Both have and get are ordinary verbs which can be continuous (are having/are
getting) and which take the auxiliary do (did... have/get...?) Get is more informal
than have.
NOTE
a Compare these two patterns with had.
had something done: We had a burglar alarm fitted (by a security company) some
time ago.
Past perfect: We had fitted a burglar alarm (ourselves) some time before that.


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b We can use get informally meaning 'cause oneself to do something' or 'get on with a job'.
I must get my homework done. We finally got everything packed into suitcases.
Here it is the subject (1, we) who must do the homework and who packed the suitcases.
3 Have meaning 'experience'
We can use the same pattern with have meaning 'experience something', often
something unpleasant. The subject is the person to whom something happens.
We had a window broken in the storm.


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We had a window broken in the storm.
My sister has had some money stolen.
PAGE 140 PAGE 141 112 The passive to-infinitive and gerund
112 The passive to-infinitive and gerund
1 Forms
Active Passive
To-infinitive to play to be played
Perfect to-infinitive to have played to have been played
Gerund playing being played
Perfect gerund having played having been played
The passive forms end with a passive participle (played).
NOTE
Passive forms can sometimes have get instead of be. • 107


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I don't expect to get invited to the wedding. Let's not risk getting caught in a traffic jam.
2 Patterns
The passive to-infinitive and gerund can come in the same patterns as the active
forms, for example after some verbs or adjectives.
a To-infinitive
I expect to be invited to the wedding. It's awful to be criticized in public.
I'd like this rubbish to be cleared away as soon as possible.
NOTE
After decide and agree we use a finite clause with should. • 242(2)


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We decided that the rubbish should be cleared away.
After arrange we can use a to-infinitive pattern with for.
We arranged for the rubbish to be cleared away.
b Perfect to-infinitive
I'd like this rubbish to have been cleared away when I get back.
c Gerund
Being searched by customs officers is unpleasant.
Let's not risk being caught in a traffic jam. I was afraid of being laughed at.
The government tried to stop the book being published.
NOTE


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NOTE
After suggest, propose, recommend and advise we use a finite clause with should. • 242(2)
The Minister proposed that the book should be banned.
d Perfect gerund
I'm annoyed at having been made a fool of.
3 Use of the passive forms
Compare the subjects in the active and passive clauses.
Active: I'd like someone to clear away this rubbish.
Passive: I'd like this rubbish to be cleared away.
In the active, the subject of the clause is someone, the agent. In the passive it is this


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rubbish, the thing the action is directed at. 13 THE PASSIVE PAGE 142
When the main clause and the infinitive or gerund clause have the same subject,
then we do not repeat the subject.
I expect to be invited to the wedding.
(= I expect that I shall be invited to the wedding.)
The understood subject of to be invited is I.
113 Active forms with a passive meaning
1 Gerund
The active gerund after need, want (= need), require and deserve has a passive
meaning.


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meaning.
These windows need painting. The cupboard wants tidying out.
We cannot use the passive gerund here.
2 To-infinitive
a We sometimes use an active to-infinitive to talk about jobs we have to do.
We've got these windows to paint.
I had some homework to do.
When the subject of the sentence is the agent, the person who has to do the job,
then we use the active infinitive, not the passive.
If the subject of the sentence is not the agent, then we use the passive infinitive.


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These windows have to be painted.
The homework was to be done by the next day.
After the subject there, we can use either an active or a passive infinitive.
There are a lot of windows to paint/to be painted.
There was some homework to do/to be done.
NOTE
We do not normally use the passive infinitive for leisure activities.
There are lots of exciting things to do here.
b After an adjective phrase, the infinitive is usually active.
This machine isn't safe to use.
The piano is too heavy to move.


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The piano is too heavy to move.
That box isn't strong enough to sit on.
If we use a phrase with by and the agent, then the infinitive is passive.
The piano is too heavy to be moved by one person.
(= The piano is too heavy for one person to move.)
NOTE
Compare ready and due.
The meal was ready to serve/to be served at eight.
The meal was due to be served at eight.
3 Main verbs
There are a few verbs that we can use in the active form with a passive meaning.


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The singer's latest record is selling like hot cakes.
This sentence doesn't read quite right.
This sweater has washed OK. PAGE 143 114 Overview: active and passive verb forms
114 Overview: active and passive verb forms
Active Passive
1 Tenses and aspects • 105
Present simple
They play the match.
Present continuous
They are playing the match.
Present perfect
They have played the match.
Past simple
They played the match.
Past continuous
They were playing the match.
Past perfect


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They were playing the match.
Past perfect
They had played the match.
Future
They will play the match.
They are going to play the match.
2 Modal verbs • 106
Modal + infinitive
They should play it.
They ought to play it.
Modal + perfect infinitive
They should have played it.
They ought to have played it.
3 To-infinitive and gerund • 112
To-infinitive
I wanted them to play the match.
Perfect to-infinitive
They expect to have played the
match by then.
Gerund
They left without playing the
match.


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Gerund
They left without playing the
match.
Perfect gerund
They left without having played
the match.
The match is played.
The match is being played.
The match has been played.
The match was played.
The match was being played.
The match had been played.
The match will be played.
The match is going to be played.
It should be played.
It ought to be played.
It should have been played.
It ought to have been played.
I wanted the match to be played.
They expect the match to have been
played by then.


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played by then.
They left without the match being
played.
They left without the match
having been played. 14The infinitive
115 Summary
Infinitive forms • 116
An infinitive can be a bare infinitive (e.g. play) or a to-infinitive (e.g. to play). There
are also perfect and continuous forms.
Infinitive clauses • 117
We can put an object or adverbial after the infinitive.
I want to play some records now.
The to-infinitive as subject and complement •118
To break your promise would be wrong.


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To break your promise would be wrong.
It would be wrong to break your promise.
The object of the game is to score the most points.
The to-infinitive expressing purpose and result •119
I came here to get some information.
We got home to find visitors on the doorstep.
Verb + to-infinitive • 120
I hope to see you again soon.
To-infinitive or gerund after a verb • 121
I wanted to play./I enjoyed playing.
Verb + object + to-infinitive • 122
My parents have invited us to visit them.


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My parents have invited us to visit them.
Adjective + to-infinitive • 123
It's nice to see you.
Noun phrase + to-infinitive • 124
I haven't got anything to wear.
Question word + to-infinitive • 125
I didn't know what to do.
PAGE 144 116 Infinitive forms
For and of with a to-infinitive • 126
It's usual for guests to bring flowers.
It was kind of you to help.
Patterns with the bare infinitive • 127
You could walk round the earth in a year.
I'd better put this cream in the fridge.


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I'd better put this cream in the fridge.
The ride made me feel sick.
116 Infinitive forms
1 Bare infinitive To-infinitive
Simple play to play
Perfect have played to have played
Continuous be playing to be playing
Perfect + continuous have been playing to have been playing
For the passive, e.g. to be played, • 112.
2 A simple infinitive is the base form of a verb, with or without to.
Bare infinitive: I'd rather sit at the back.
To-infinitive: I'd prefer to sit at the back.


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To-infinitive: I'd prefer to sit at the back.
There is no difference in meaning here between sit and to sit. Which we use
depends on the grammatical pattern.
3 Here are some examples with perfect and continuous forms.
It's a pity I missed that programme. I'd like to have seen it.
You'd better have finished by tomorrow.
The weather seems to be getting worse.
I'd rather be lying on the beach than stuck in a traffic jam.
The man appeared to have been drinking.
We cannot use a past form.


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We cannot use a past form.
NOT I'd like to saw it.
4 A simple infinitive refers to the same time as in the main clause.
I'm pleased to meet you.
(The pleasure and the meeting are both in the present.)
You were lucky to win.
(The luck and the victory are both in the past.)
We use a perfect infinitive for something before the time in the main clause.
I'd like to have seen that programme yesterday.
(The desire is in the present, but the programme is in the past.)


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We use a continuous infinitive for something happening over a period.
You're lucky to be winning.
(You're winning at the moment.)
PAGE 145 14 THE INFINITIVE
5 In the negative, not comes before the infinitive.
I'd rather not sit at the front.
I'd prefer not to sit at the front.
NOTE
It can make a difference whether the main verb or the infinitive is negative.
I told you not to go. (= I told you to stay.)
I didn't tell you to go. (= I didn't say 'Go'.)


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I didn't tell you to go. (= I didn't say 'Go'.)
6 To can stand for an infinitive clause. •39(1)
I have to go out, but I don't want to.
We can sometimes leave out to so that we do not repeat it.
It's better to do it now than (to) leave it to the last minute.
When to-infinitives are linked by and, we do not usually repeat to.
I'm going to go out and have a good time.
117 Infinitive clauses
1 An infinitive clause can be just an infinitive on its own, or there can be an object
or adverbial.


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or adverbial.
A ride on a London bus is the best way to see the city.
We need to act quickly.
An adverbial usually comes after the infinitive, and an object always comes after it.
NOT the best way the city to see
NOTE
An adverb can sometimes go before the infinitive. Compare the position of suddenly in
these clauses.
I didn't expect you to change your mind suddenly.
I didn't expect you suddenly to change your mind.
It can also sometimes go between to and the verb.


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It can also sometimes go between to and the verb.
I didn't expect you to suddenly change your mind.
This is called a 'split infinitive' because the infinitive to change is split by the word suddenly.
Split infinitives are common usage, although some people regard them as incorrect. In
general, it is safer to avoid them if you can, especially in writing. But sometimes we need to
split the infinitive to show that the adverb modifies it.
Wo one claims to really understand what is happening.


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The government is planning to secretly test a new and more powerful weapon.
This makes it clear that we mean a real understanding (not a real claim), and that the test is
secret (not just the plan).
2 A preposition comes in its normal place, usually after a verb or adjective.
Your meals are all you have to pay for.
There's nothing to get excited about.
I need a vase to put these flowers in.
NOTE
In more formal English we can begin the clause with a preposition and relative pronoun.


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Less formal: I need some information to base the article on.
More formal: I need some information on which to base the article.
PAGE 146 PAGE 147 119 The to-infinitive: purpose and result
118 The to-infinitive as subject and complement
1 We can sometimes use a to-infinitive clause as subject.
To defrost this fridge takes ages.
To turn down the invitation seems rude.
Not to take a holiday now and then is a great mistake.


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But this pattern is not very usual. More often we use if as an 'empty subject'
referring forward to the infinitive clause. • 50(5)
It takes ages to defrost this fridge.
Would it seem rude to turn down the invitation?
It's a great mistake not to take a holiday now and then.
But we often use a gerund clause as subject. • 131(1)
Defrosting this fridge takes ages.
2 A to-infinitive clause can be a complement after be.
Melanie's ambition is to go to Australia.
The important thing is not to panic.


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The important thing is not to panic.
The idea was to surprise everybody.
NOTE For be to, e.g. Everyone is to attend, • 76.
119 The to-infinitive expressing purpose and
result
1 A to-infinitive clause can express purpose.
Laura has gone to town to do some shopping.
I'm writing to enquire about activity holidays.
To get a good seat, you need to arrive early.
For other ways of expressing purpose, • 252.
NOTE
a In informal British English we use the forms go and/come and rather than go to/come to.


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I'll go and fetch a hammer. Come and have a look at this.
Americans say I'll go fetch a hammer.
b After going or coming we use a to-infinitive.
Mark is coining to look at the photos.
2 We can sometimes use a to-infinitive clause to express result, although this use is
rather literary.
Laura came home to find her house on fire.
He grew up to be a handsome young man.
The to-infinitive can express the idea of 'bad news' following 'good news'. We
often use only before the infinitive.


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often use only before the infinitive.
I found my keys only to lose them again.
Charles arrived for the concert (only) to find it had been cancelled.
3 An infinitive clause can also express a comment on the sentence.
To be frank, you didn't make a very good impression.
I'm a bit tired of sightseeing, to tell you the truth. 14 THE INFINITIVE
120 Verb + to-infinitive
1 We can use a to-infinitive after some verbs.
I plan to visit India next year.
People are refusing to pay the new tax.


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People are refusing to pay the new tax.
We hope to be moving into our new flat soon.
We expect to have completed the work by the summer.
For a list of these verbs and of verbs taking a gerund, • 121.
NOTE
The to-infinitive clause is the object of the main verb. Compare these sentences.
I wanted to play.
I wanted a game.
But some verbs take a preposition before a noun.
We decided to play tennis.
We decided on a game of tennis.


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We decided on a game of tennis.
2 We can use seem, appear, happen, tend, come, grow, turn out and prove with a
to-infinitive.
The plane seemed to be losing height. (It was apparently losing height.)
We happened to meet in the street. (We met by chance in the street.)
The debate turned out to be very interesting.
Here the to-infinitive clause is not the object, because seem, appear etc are not
transitive verbs. They say something about the truth of the statement, or the


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manner or time of the action. With some of these verbs we can use the empty
subject it. • 50(5c)
It seemed (that) the plane was losing height.
The object of the to-infinitive can be subject of a passive sentence.
Active: Someone seems to have stolen the computer.
Passive: The computer seems to have been stolen.
3 Sometimes we can use a finite clause instead of the infinitive clause.
We decided to play tennis.
We decided (that) we would play tennis.
But with some verbs this is not possible.


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But with some verbs this is not possible.
NOT People are refusing that they pay the new tax.
For verb + finite clause, • 262(1).
121 To-infinitive or gerund after a verb
1 Verbs taking only one form
Some verbs take a to-infinitive, and others take a gerund.
To-infinitive: I decided to take a taxi.
Gerund: I suggested taking a taxi. 121 To-infinitive or gerund after a verb
+ to-infinitive
afford • Note a expect ought • 93
agree • Note b fail plan
aim get (= succeed) prepare


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aim get (= succeed) prepare
appear • 120(2) grow • 120(2) pretend
arrange guarantee promise
ask happen • 120(2) prove • 120(2)
attempt hasten refuse
be • 76 have • 92 seek
be dying • Note c help • Note e seem • 120(2)
beg hesitate swear
can't wait hope tend • 120(2)
care (= want) • Note d learn threaten
choose long train
claim manage turn out • 120(2)
come • 120(2) neglect undertake
dare • 101 offer used • 100(2)
decide omit wish
demand
+ gerund
admit escape permit • Note f


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demand
+ gerund
admit escape permit • Note f
advise • Note f excuse postpone
allow • Note f face practise
anticipate fancy (= want) put off
appreciate finish quit
avoid give up recommend • Note f
can't help imagine resent
confess involve resist
consider justify resume
delay keep (on) risk
deny leave off save
detest mention stand • Note a
dislike mind • Note d suggest
enjoy miss tolerate
NOTE
a Afford (= have enough money/time) and stand (= tolerate) go after can/could or be able to.


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They are often in a negative sentence or a question.
Do you think we'll be able to afford to go to India?
I can't stand sitting around doing nothing.
b We can use agree with a to-infinitive but not accept.
Brian agreed to pay half the cost. NOT Brian accepted to pay half.
c We use be dying (= want very much) only in the continuous.
I'm dying to have a swim./I'm dying for a swim.
d Care and mind are normally in a negative sentence or a question.


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Would you care to come along with us? Do you mind carrying this bag for me?
e After help we can leave out to.
We all helped (to) put up the tent.
f When advise, recommend, allow or permit has another object, it takes a to-infinitive.
I advised taking a taxi. They don't allow sunbathing here.
I advised the girls to take a taxi. They don't allow people to sunbathe here.
PAGE 149 14 THE INFINITIVE PAGE 150
2 Verbs taking either form


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2 Verbs taking either form
Some verbs can take either a to-infinitive or a gerund with almost no difference in
meaning.
I hate to leave/hate leaving everything to the last minute.
When the President appeared, the crowd began to cheer/began cheering.
We intend to take/intend taking immediate action.
These verbs are begin, bother, can't bear, cease, commence, continue, hate, intend,
like, love, prefer, propose, start.
NOTE


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like, love, prefer, propose, start.
NOTE
a With verbs of liking and hating, sometimes the gerund gives a sense of the action really
happening, while the infinitive often points to a possible action.
I hate doing the same thing all the time. It gets really boring sometimes.
I'd hate to do the same thing all the time. I'm lucky my job is so interesting.
Like, love and hate usually take a gerund, but would like, would love and would hate
normally take a to-infinitive.


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normally take a to-infinitive.
I love swimming. I swim nearly every day.
I'd love to go for a swim. It's such a lovely day.
b Like takes a to-infinitive when it means that something is a good idea, rather than a
pleasure.
I like to keep all these papers in order.
Compare these two sentences.
I didn't like to complain. (= I didn't complain because it wasn't a good idea.)
I didn't like complaining. (= I complained, but I didn't enjoy it.)


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c When the main verb has a continuous form, we normally avoid using another ing-form
after it.
The spectators were already beginning to arrive. NOT beginning arriving
d After start, begin and continue, a state verb usually has the to-infinitive form.
I soon began to understand what the problems were.
e Commence and cease are formal. For stop, • (3e).
f Bother is normally in a negative sentence or question.
Don't bother to wash/bother washing up.
3 Either form but different meanings


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3 Either form but different meanings
The to-infinitive and gerund have different meanings after remember, forget;
regret; dread; try; stop; mean; go on; need, want, require and deserve.
a We use remember and forget with a to-infinitive to talk about necessary actions
and whether we do them or not
Did you remember to turn off the electricity?
You forgot to sign the cheque. ~ Oh, sorry.
We use a gerund to talk about memories of the past.


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I'll never forget breaking down in the middle of Glasgow. It was awful.
I don't know. I can't remember turning it off.
NOTE
We can use a finite clause instead of a gerund clause.
I'll never forget (the time) when we broke down.
I can't remember if/whether I turned it off.
b We use regret + to-infinitive for a present action, especially when giving bad news.
We use a gerund to express regret about the past.
We regret to inform you that your application has been unsuccessful.


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I regret wasting/regret having wasted so much time last year.
Compare patterns with sorry. • 132(5b) Note h PAGE 151 122 Verb + object + to-infinitive
c We use dread + to-infinitive mainly in the expression I dread to think/imagine...
We use a gerund for something that causes fear.
I dread to think what might happen to you all alone in a big city.
I always dreaded being kissed by my aunts.
d Try + to-infinitive means 'attempt to do' and try + gerund means 'do something


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which might solve the problem'.
I'm trying to light a fire, but this wood won't burn. ~
Why don't you try pouring some petrol on it?
NOTE
In informal English we can use try and instead of try to.
Let's try and move the cupboard away from the wall.
e After stop we often use the to-infinitive of purpose. But stop + gerund means to end
an action.
At the next services he stopped to buy a newspaper.
You'd better stop dreaming and get on with some work.


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f Mean + to-infinitive has the sense of 'intend'. But mean + gerund expresses result,
what is involved in something.
I'm sorry. I didn't mean to step on your foot.
I have to be at the airport by nine. It means getting up early.
g Go on + to-infinitive means to do something different, to do the next thing. Go on +
ing-form means to continue doing something.
After receiving the award, the actor went on to thank all the people who had
helped him in his career.


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helped him in his career.
The band went on playing even after everyone had left.
h We usually use need, want and deserve with a to-infinitive.
We need to leave at eight. Tony wants to borrow your typewriter.
A gerund after these verbs has a passive meaning. • 113(1)
The typewriter needs/wants cleaning.
122 Verb + object + to-infinitive
1 Some verbs can take an object and a to-infinitive.
I expected Dave to meet me at the airport.
Your landlady wants you to post these letters.


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Your landlady wants you to post these letters.
We asked the teacher not to give us any homework.
Here Dave is the object of the verb expected. It also functions as the subject of to
meet. Compare these sentences.
I expected Dave to meet me.
I expected (that) Dave would meet me.
NOTE
a Compare the infinitive without a subject.
I expected to see Dave. (= I expected (that) I would see Dave.)
b We can often use a passive infinitive.
I expected to be met. (= I expected (that) I would be met.)


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c Sometimes the main clause in this pattern can be passive.
Dave was expected to meet me.
d For the pattern with for, e.g. I waited for Dave to ring, • 126. 14 THE INFINITIVE PAGE 152
2 We can use the following verbs with an object and a to-infinitive.
a Verbs meaning 'order' or 'request'
The doctor told Celia to stay in bed.
We persuaded our neighbours to turn the music down.
Here Celia is the indirect object, and the infinitive clause is the direct object. We


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can use advise, ask, beg, command, encourage, instruct, invite, order, persuade,
recommend, remind, request, tell, urge, warn.
NOTE
a A finite clause is possible, but it is sometimes a little formal.
We persuaded our neighbours that they should turn the music down.
b We cannot use suggest in this pattern.
NOT We suggested our neighbours to turn the music down.
We use a finite clause instead.
We suggested (to our neighbours) that they might turn the music down.
c The main clause can be passive.


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c The main clause can be passive.
Our neighbours were persuaded to turn the music down.
b Verbs meaning 'cause' or 'help'
The crisis has forced the government to act.
This portable phone enables me to keep in touch with the office.
We can use allow, authorize, cause, compel, drive, enable, forbid, force, get, help,
intend, lead, mean, oblige, permit, require, teach, train.
NOTE
a We can use a finite clause after require and intend, but it is a little formal.


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We never intended that the information should be made public.
A finite clause after allow, permit or forbid is not very usual.
NOT The university allows that students change their subject.
b We can use there as the subject of the infinitive clause. It is rather formal.
The regulations permit there to be no more than two hundred people in the hall.
c The main clause can be passive.
The government has been forced to act.
But cause and get cannot be passive before an infinitive.


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d For get in this pattern, e.g. I got Mike to lend me his electric drill, • 111(1).
e After help we can leave out to.
I'm helping my friend (to) find aflat.
c Verbs meaning 'say' or 'think'
The judges announced the result to be a draw.
The police believed the Mafia to have committed the crime.
This pattern can be rather formal. We can use announce, assume, believe, consider,
declare, discover, estimate, expect, feel, find, imagine, judge, know, presume, report,


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reveal, show, suppose, understand.
NOTE
a All these verbs can have a finite clause after them.
The police believed (that) the Mafia had committed the crime.
b We often use the infinitive to be in this pattern. We can sometimes leave out to be,
especially after declare, believe, consider and find.
The country declared itself (to be) independent.
c We can use consider but not regard.
We consider ourselves (to be) a separate nation.
We regard ourselves as a separate nation.


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We regard ourselves as a separate nation.
d We can use there as the subject of the infinitive clause.
We understood there to be money available.
e The passive pattern is more common than the active. • 109
The Mafia were believed to have committed the crime.
We can use say and think in the passive pattern but not in the active. PAGE 153 123 Adjective + to-infinitive
d Verbs of wanting and liking
I want everyone to enjoy themselves.
I'd like you to hold the door open for me.


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I'd like you to hold the door open for me.
We can use want, wish, (would) like, (would) love, (would) prefer, (would) hate and
can't bear.
NOTE
a With most of these verbs we cannot use a finite clause.
NOT I want that everyone enjoys themselves.
b We can use there as the subject of the infinitive clause. This is rather formal.
We'd prefer there to be an adult in charge.
c After like, love, prefer and hate we can use it when/if + clause.


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7 hate it when you ignore me. My aunt would love it if we took her out for a drive.
d The main clause cannot be passive.
NOT Everyone is wanted to enjoy themselves.
But the infinitive can be passive.
I'd like the door to be held open.
123 Adjective + to-infinitive
1 The pattern It was easy to write the letter
A common pattern is it + linking verb + adjective + to-infinitive clause.
It was marvellous to visit the Grand Canyon.
It is difficult to solve the problem.


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It is difficult to solve the problem.
It is rare to see a horse and cart nowadays.
It felt very strange to be watched by so many people.
For the use of it as empty subject, • 50(5).
Here are some examples of adjectives in this pattern.
'Good'/'Bad': marvellous, terrific, wonderful, perfect, great, good, nice, pleasant,
lovely; terrible, awful, dreadful, horrible
Adjectives in ing: interesting, exciting, depressing, confusing, embarrassing, amusing


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Difficulty, danger and expense: easy, difficult, hard, convenient, possible,
impossible; safe, dangerous; cheap, expensive
Necessity: necessary, vital, essential, important, advisable, better/best
Frequency: usual, normal, common; rare
Comment: strange, odd, incredible; natural, understandable
Personal qualities: good, nice, kind, helpful; mean, generous; clever, intelligent,
sensible, right; silly, stupid, foolish; careless; wrong; polite, rude
2 The pattern The letter was easy to write


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2 The pattern The letter was easy to write
Here we understand the letter as the object of to write.
The Grand Canyon was marvellous to visit.
The problem is difficult to solve.
Would gas be any cheaper to cook with ?
In this pattern we can use some adjectives meaning 'good' or 'bad' and adjectives
of difficulty, danger and expense. For examples of these adjectives, • (1).
There is no object after the to-infinitive in this pattern.
NOT The problem is difficult to solve it.
NOTE


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NOT The problem is difficult to solve it.
NOTE
We can use impossible in this pattern, but we cannot use possible.
The problem is impossible to solve. 14 THE INFINITIVE
3 The pattern It was an easy letter to write
The adjective can come before a noun.
It was a marvellous experience to visit the Grand Canyon.
It's a difficult problem to solve.
It's a rare thing to see a horse and cart nowadays.
4 Patterns with too and enough
In adjective + to-infinitive patterns we often use too or enough.


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It's too difficult to work the figures out in your head.
The coffee was too hot to drink.
This rucksack isn't big enough to get everything in.
NOTE
Compare very, too and enough in the adjective + noun pattern (Pattern 3).
It's a very difficult problem to solve.
It's too difficult a problem to solve in your head.
It's a difficult enough problem to keep a whole team of scientists busy.
5 The pattern I was happy to write the letter
Here the subject of the main clause is a person.


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Here the subject of the main clause is a person.
We were sorry to hear your bad news. (= We were sorry when we heard.)
I'm quite prepared to help.
You were clever to find that out.
You were lucky to win the game.
Here are some examples of adjectives in this pattern.
Feelings: happy, glad, pleased, delighted; amused; proud; grateful; surprised;
interested; sad, sorry; angry, annoyed; ashamed; horrified
Willing/Unwilling: willing, eager, anxious, keen, impatient, determined, ready,


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prepared; unwilling, reluctant; afraid
Some adjectives expressing personal qualities: mean, clever, sensible, right, silly
The adjectives lucky and fortunate
NOTE
a After some of these adjectives we can use a preposition + gerund: happy about writing the
letter. • 132(4)
b Compare these patterns with an adjective expressing a personal quality.
Pattern 1: It was mean (of you) not to leave a tip.
Pattern 5: You were mean not to leave a tip.
c We can use quick and slow to express manner.


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c We can use quick and slow to express manner.
The government has been quick to act. (= The government has acted quickly.)
6 The pattern It is likely to happen
In this pattern we can use likely, sure and certain.
The peace talks are likely to last several weeks.
The party is sure to be a great success.
PAGE 154 PAGE 155 124 Noun phrase + to-infinitive
124 Noun phrase + to-infinitive
1 The pattern the need to write
a We can use a to-infinitive clause after some verbs and adjectives.


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I need to write a letter. We are determined to succeed.
We can also use an infinitive after a related noun.
Is there really any need to write a letter?
We shall never lose our determination to succeed.
Our decision to oppose the scheme was the right one.
Everyone laughed at Jerry's attempt to impress the girls.
Some nouns in this pattern are:
ability decision intention proposal
agreement demand need refusal
ambition desire offer reluctance
anxiety determination plan request


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anxiety determination plan request
arrangement eagerness preparations willingness
attempt failure promise wish
choice
b Some other nouns with similar meanings can take a to-infinitive, e.g. chance,
effort, opportunity, scheme, time.
There will be an opportunity to inspect the plans.
c But some nouns take a preposition + ing-form, not an infinitive. • 132(7)
There's no hope of getting there in time.
2 The pattern letters to write


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2 The pattern letters to write
In this pattern the to-infinitive expresses necessity or possibility.
I've got some letters to write. (= letters that I have to write)
Take something to read on the train. (= something that you can read)
The doctor had a number of patients to see.
The to-infinitive clause here is shorter and neater than the finite clause with have
to or can.
NOTE
a For letters to be written, • 113(2).
b Compare these sentences.


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b Compare these sentences.
I have some work to do. (= I have/There is some work that I need to do.)
I have to do some work. (= I must do/I need to do some work.)
Other patterns with a noun phrase + to-infinitive
For the pattern with it, e.g. It's a good idea to wear safety glasses, •118.
For patterns with for and of, e.g. It's best for people to make their own arrangements, • 126.
For the first person to leave, • 277. 14 THE INFINITIVE
125 Question word + to-infinitive


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125 Question word + to-infinitive
1 We can use a question word or phrase before a to-infinitive.
I just don't know what to say.
Alice wasn't sure how much to tip the porter.
Have you any idea how to open this packet?
No one told us where to meet.
This pattern expresses an indirect question about what the best action is. What to
say means 'what I should say'.
NOTE
a We cannot use why in this pattern,
b We can use whether but not if.


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b We can use whether but not if.
I was wondering whether to ring you. We'll have to decide whether to go (or not).
c After what, which, whose, how many and how much we can use a noun.
I didn't know what size to buy. The driver wasn't sure which way to go.
2 Here are some verbs that we can use before the question word:
advise someone discover know tell someone
ask (someone) discuss learn think
choose explain remember understand
consider find out show someone wonder


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consider find out show someone wonder
decide forget teach someone workout
We can also use have an idea, make up your mind and the adjectives clear, obvious
and sure.
We can also use this pattern after a preposition.
I was worried about what to wear.
There's the problem of how much luggage to take.
NOTE
To report instructions about how something should be done, we use tell/show someone how
to or teach someone (how) to.
Maureen told me how to turn on the heating. I didn't know how to do it.


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Compare an indirect order.
Maureen told me to turn on the heating. She felt cold.
126 For and of with a to-infinitive
1 The pattern I'll wait for you to finish
I'll wait for you to finish your breakfast.
We've arranged for a photographer to take some photos.
We can use apply for, arrange for, ask for, call for (= demand), long for, prepare for,
wait for.
2 The pattern It's important for you to finish
It's important for you to finish the course and get a qualification.


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It can be difficult for young people to buy their own home.
I'm anxious for the matter to be settled.
PAGE 156 We can use many adjectives in this pattern, for example:
anxious eager marvellous silly
awful easy necessary stupid
better/best essential nice terrible
cheap expensive ready willing
convenient important reluctant wonderful
dangerous keen safe wrong
difficult
3 Patterns with too and enough
Before the for pattern, we can use too or enough with a quantifier, adjective or
adverb.


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adverb.
There's too much work for you to finish today.
The kitchen is too small for the whole family to eat in.
The light wasn't shining brightly enough for anyone to notice it.
4 The pattern It's a good idea for you to finish
It's a good idea for you to finish the course and get a qualification.
It's a nuisance for tourists to have to get visas.
We can use some nouns, e.g. advantage, demand, disadvantage, disaster, idea,
mistake, nuisance, plan.
NOTE


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mistake, nuisance, plan.
NOTE
We can also use some nouns related to the verbs and adjectives in Patterns 1 and 2.
I've made arrangements for someone to take photos.
He couldn't hide his anxiety for the matter to be settled.
5 The pattern It's nice of you to finish
It's nice of you to finish the job for me.
It was rude of your friend not to shake hands.
It was clever of Tina to find that out.
We can use adjectives expressing personal qualities, e.g. brave, careless, clever,


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foolish, generous, good, helpful, honest, intelligent, kind, mean, nice, polite, rude,
sensible, silly, stupid, wrong.
NOTE
Compare these sentences.
It was nice of Tom to take the dog for a walk.
(Nice expressing a personal quality: it was a kind action by Tom.)
It was nice for Tom to take the dog for a walk.
(It was a pleasant experience for Tom.)
6 For expressing purpose
There are telephones for drivers to call for help if they break down.


